# Atlas of Today's World > Atlas of Today's World is a non-profit, open-access encyclopedia of the present: every country, world region and global issue on an interactive 3D globe, with data from international sources and articles by experts. Atlas of Today’s World is published by Atlas of Today's World, z. s., a non-profit registered association in Prague, Czech Republic, founded in 2016. Everything is free to read without an account. Country, region and global-issue pages combine editorial text with indicators from international sources (UNDP, World Bank, V-Dem, Transparency International and others via Our World in Data); every value states its source and year. Articles show their author, publication date and last update. Cite as: Atlas of Today’s World, “”, (accessed ). Website: designed and built by Develogi.cz s.r.o. (https://www.develogi.cz/), a Czech software development company. Language: English. Markdown version of any article: add .md to its URL. Full text of all articles: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/llms-full.txt. Feeds: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/feed.xml (RSS) and https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/atom.xml (Atom). Sitemap: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/sitemap.xml. ## Encyclopedia dossiers - [The State of Inequality within Minority Groups](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/the-state-of-inequality-within-minority-groups): 2025-03-03 — The definition of “ minority” is not conclusive and universally agreed upon. However, Generally speaking, the term “minorities” often applies to a wide range of groups, such as racial minorities, LGBT people, people with disabilities, or those with minority political opinions. However, in the eyes… - [Gender Equality and Poverty](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/gender-equality-and-poverty): 2025-02-12 — Across the world, women face higher rates of poverty than men. They are more likely to lack the income needed to cover their basic needs and tend to end up poor in old age more often than men. This systemic inequality stems from women's greater responsibility for unpaid care work and the barriers… - [Political Ideologies and their Perspectives on Human Rights](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/political-ideologies-and-their-perspectives-on-human-rights): 2024-11-23 — The relationship between political ideology and human rights is complex. Moreover, this relationship can differ according to which ideology an individual adheres. For example, cultural relativists view human rights as culturally constructed and believe they should be applied differently across… - [Challenges to Combating Climate Change at the Individual, Regional and Global Level](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/climate-change-challenges-to-combating-climate-change-at-the-individual-regional-and-global-level): 2024-11-19 — Climate change entails lasting shifts in Earth's climate patterns, including temperature, precipitation, wind, and other phenomena. This stems from both natural factors and human activities. The observed alterations in the climate system arise from surplus heat, a result of greenhouse gases added… - [Current Global Debates About Human Rights](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/current-global-debates-about-human-rights): 2024-11-18 — The International Human Rights Regime is made up of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1976 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the 1976 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It is a system of declarations and treaties that countries… - [Ethics and Practices of Humanitarian Intervention](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/ethics-and-practices-of-humanitarian-intervention): 2024-08-20 — Through the use of "humanitarian intervention", states use military force to solve humanitarian crises in other states without their consent. This starkly contrasts with standard humanitarian aid, in which organisations offer their assistance in a lawful and controlled manner within the framework… - [The Rise of Non-State Actors in the 20th and 21st Century](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/the-rise-of-non-state-actors-in-the-20th-and-21st-century): 2024-08-20 — In the current state of the world, states are no longer the sole owners of power. Non-state actors such as multinational companies, international organisations, or NGOs are gaining more and more economic resources and influence in national and even global affairs. There is a tension there… - [Overview of Globalisation: Integration and Division](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/overview-of-globalisation-integration-and-division): 2024-06-12 — Globalisation refers to the increasing integration of countries and peoples worldwide through advances in technology, transportation, and communication. While global exchange originated thousands of years ago, its pace has accelerated greatly since the late 19th century. Globalisation has enabled… - [International Humanitarian Law and the Conduct of War](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/international-humanitarian-law-and-the-conduct-of-war): 2024-03-06 — International humanitarian law (IHL) attempts to balance military necessity and humanitarian protection during wars. It is built on a few key principles, including proportionality, which aim to regulate warfare. But managing to apply these principles on the battlefield, where emotion and military… - [International Law Mechanisms Related to Refugees](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/international-law-mechanisms-related-to-refugees): 2024-02-01 — The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by mass migration and displacement of people across the world. Under Fridtjof Nansen, High Commissioner for Refugees (1920-1930), the League of Nations made the first attempts to regulate the refugee situation at the level of international law… - [Types of Migrants](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/types-of-migrants): 2024-02-01 — There is no universally accepted definition for “migrant” at the international level. Amnesty International, for example, describes migrants as people staying outside their country of origin, who are not asylum seekers or refugees. This definition draws a distinction between voluntary and… - [Detention of Migrants and Refugees](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/detention-of-migrants-and-refugees): 2023-11-21 — Detention of refugees and immigrants refers to the practice of placing these groups in detention centers with bars and fences that are isolated from society. This is a state practice that is common during asylum, entry, or return procedures, and which violates the fundamental human right to… - [Connections Between Biodiversity and Climate Change](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/connections-between-biodiversity-and-climate-change): 2023-11-21 — Global biodiversity is facing a severe decline due to overexploitation, habitat loss, and climate change. The world is already experiencing its sixth mass biological extinction, with species disappearing up to 1000 times faster than the normal rate. Significant changes in landscapes and ecosystems… - [Human Rights Violations and Advocacy](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/human-rights-violations-and-advocacy): 2023-11-21 — States have several options to raise awareness of human rights violations on the global stage. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the United Nations was the initial step for the process of norms pertaining human rights in the international sphere. Several treaties that support human… - [Migrant Smuggling](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/migrant-smuggling): 2023-11-21 — Smugglers are known, especially in Western Europe and North America, as vicious criminals behind enterprises that threaten the security of nation-states and safety of migrants. Several reports tell of the ruthlessness of smugglers, who do not hesitate to abandon people in the desert or leave them… - [Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/disaster-risk-reduction-and-climate-change-adaptation): 2023-11-21 — The term 'natural disaster' is misleading, as evidence shows that disasters mainly stem from social, political, economic, and cultural processes rather than purely natural causes. Climate change, driven by the actions of the world’s wealthier minority, escalates the frequency and intensity of… - [The Role of International Organisations in Peace and Conflict](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/the-role-of-international-organisations-in-peace-and-conflict): 2023-11-21 — Peacekeeping and peacebuilding are complementary approaches for promoting peace, with peacekeeping focused on short-term stabilisation and peacebuilding on the underlying causes of conflict. However, such efforts can be challenging in practice due to differing priorities of actors and limited… ## News and analysis - [The Sahel's Coup Belt](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/sahel-coup-belt): 2026-09-02 — A band of states from the Atlantic to the Red Sea has spent the past decade replacing elected governments with soldiers. The pattern is regional, and the causes travel. - [Who Pays for the Nordic Model](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/nordic-model-under-strain): 2026-08-21 — The northern European welfare states still deliver the outcomes they are famous for. The question is what is holding the financing together as the population ages. - [Shipping Lanes and Leverage in the Red Sea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/red-sea-shipping-leverage): 2026-08-07 — A corridor two dozen kilometres wide at its narrowest point carries a large share of the trade between Asia and Europe. Everyone on its shores knows it. - [Mekong Dams and the Politics of Downstream](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/mekong-dams-downstream): 2026-07-18 — One river feeds the rice fields and fisheries of five countries. The decisions that determine how much water arrives are taken upstream, by whoever built first. - [The Andes and the Long Shadow of the Mining Economy](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/andes-mining-economy): 2026-06-30 — Five centuries after the silver mountain at Potosi, the region that supplies much of the world's copper and lithium is still arguing about who the ground belongs to. - [Living Through the War: Daily Life in Ukraine](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/ukraine-war-daily-life): 2026-01-22 — Air-raid schedules, rolling blackouts and a workforce reorganised around them — how ordinary routines adapted to a fourth year of full-scale war. - [The Regime of Vladimir Putin](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/putins-regime): 2025-11-04 — How a transitional presidency of the late 1990s hardened into a personalised system in which elections, courts and media all answer to one office. - [Enlargement Returns: The EU's Eastern Question](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/eu-enlargement-east): 2025-09-30 — Accession talks with Ukraine and Moldova reopened a debate the Union had shelved for a decade — and exposed how little its institutions are designed for thirty-plus members. ## World regions - [Eastern Europe & Central Asia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/eastern-europe-central-asia/full-page): Eastern Europe is a region shaped by resilience, where imperial facades, communist blocks, and modern glass towers coexist, reflecting a past that still influences daily life. Society balances tradition with rapid change, navigating political skepticism, economic transition, and European… - [Western & Central Europe](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/western-central-europe/full-page): A dense cluster of small states bound by a single market, open borders and a shared postwar promise of prosperity. Western and Central Europe combines some of the world's highest living standards with ageing populations, contested migration politics and an energy transition that reshapes its… - [Middle East & North Africa](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/middle-east-north-africa/full-page): From the Atlantic coast of Morocco to the Iranian plateau, MENA is young, urban and unevenly rich. Hydrocarbon wealth has built city-states of extraordinary affluence next to countries hollowed out by war and sanctions. Water scarcity, a population bulge entering the labour market and the slow… - [Sub-Saharan Africa](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/sub-saharan-africa/full-page): The world's youngest region and the one that will supply most of the next generation of workers. Sub-Saharan Africa spans forty-nine countries with little in common beyond that label: stable middle-income democracies, fast-urbanising giants, and a Sahel belt where state authority is retreating… - [South Asia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/south-asia/full-page): A quarter of humanity on three percent of the world's land. South Asia holds the fastest-growing large economy, two nuclear-armed rivals and the populations most exposed to heat and flooding. Rapid growth in services sits beside persistent malnutrition; democratic forms sit beside tightening… - [East Asia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/east-asia/full-page): The workshop of the global economy and the arena where the century's central rivalry plays out. East Asia has the world's densest manufacturing networks, its most advanced chip industry and its steepest demographic decline. Taiwan, the Korean peninsula and the East China Sea keep military risk… - [Southeast Asia & Oceania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/southeast-asia-oceania/full-page): An archipelagic world of trade routes, hedging diplomacy and climate exposure. Southeast Asia is growing fast and industrialising as supply chains diversify out of China, while the Pacific island states negotiate their sovereignty between great powers and rising seas. Australia and New Zealand… - [North America](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/north-america/full-page): Two wealthy federations and the world's largest military and financial power. North America sets much of the technological and cultural agenda others react to, while its own politics turn on polarisation, migration at the southern border and the cost of housing and healthcare. - [Latin America & the Caribbean](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/latin-america-caribbean/full-page): The most urbanised region of the global south and among the most unequal. Latin America swings between electoral cycles with unusual speed, carries some of the world's highest homicide rates, and holds resources — lithium, copper, soy, the Amazon — that the energy transition has made strategic. - [Antarctica](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/antarctica/full-page): Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, almost entirely covered by ice up to four kilometres thick. It has no permanent population; scientists from dozens of countries live at research stations. Under the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 the continent is reserved for peaceful purposes… ## Global issues - [Russia–Ukraine War](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/global-issue/russia-ukraine-war/full-page): The war and the states it reshaped. The largest interstate war in Europe since 1945, and the countries whose security, economy and population movements it rearranged. The full portrait carries the Atlas entry A Decade of War in Ukraine. ## Data layers (datasets by country) - [Human Development Index](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/hdi): A single score from 0 to 1 combining life expectancy, years of schooling and income per head. It asks one question: how far does a country turn its resources into long, educated, decent lives? Source: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); latest data 2023; 193 countries. - [Life expectancy at birth](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/life-expectancy): How many years a child born today would live if today's mortality rates held for their whole life. The most sensitive single reading of a country's health, its wars and its poverty. Source: UN World Population Prospects; latest data 2023; 229 countries. - [GDP per capita (PPP, int-$)](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/gdp-per-capita): Economic output per person, adjusted for what money actually buys locally. Drawn on a logarithmic scale, because the step from $1,000 to $2,000 changes a life as much as $40,000 to $80,000. Source: World Bank; latest data 2025; 199 countries. - [Political regime](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/political-regime): Four categories from the Regimes of the World classification: whether elections happen, whether they are free, and whether power is checked once it has been won. Source: V-Dem (Regimes of the World), via Our World in Data; latest data 2025; 177 countries. - [Electoral democracy index](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/democracy-index): V-Dem's electoral democracy index from 0 to 1: how far elections are free and fair, and how far speech, press and association are protected in the years between them. Source: V-Dem, via Our World in Data; latest data 2025; 177 countries. - [Corruption Perceptions Index](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/corruption): Expert and business perceptions of corruption in the public sector, from 0 (highly corrupt) to 100 (very clean). It measures perception, not convictions. Source: Transparency International; latest data 2024; 182 countries. - [Population in extreme poverty](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/extreme-poverty): Share of people living on less than $2.15 a day at 2017 prices — the international line for extreme poverty. Source: World Bank Poverty and Inequality Platform; latest data 2025; 171 countries. - [CO₂ emissions per capita](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/co2-per-capita): Tonnes of CO₂ from fossil fuels and industry per resident per year. Counted where goods are made, not where they are consumed, so exporting economies carry the emissions of their customers. Source: Global Carbon Budget; latest data 2024; 213 countries. - [Share of population using the internet](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/view/internet-users): Share of the population that used the internet in the past three months — the closest available reading of who takes part in the digital public sphere. Source: International Telecommunication Union (ITU); latest data 2025; 212 countries. ## About the Atlas - [About the Atlas](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/about): Atlas of Today’s World is an independent encyclopedia of the present, built around an interactive 3D globe. - [Topics](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics): Every encyclopedia dossier of the Atlas in one place: migrant smuggling, conflicts, development and more, each told in subtopics with sources. - [Global issues](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/global-issues): Every global issue of the Atlas in one place: wars, forced displacement, climate and more, each followed across the countries it touches, with its topics, timeline and sources. - [Atlas Patrons](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/membership): Join Atlas Patrons, our community of supporters, and help build an independent, open-access encyclopedia of today's world. - [Claude skills](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/skills): The instructions and reference files that teach Claude how the Atlas of Today's World is built — public to read, download and load into your own Claude. - [RSS](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/feed.xml) - [Sitemap](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/sitemap.xml) ## Optional - [China](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/china): East Asia - [India](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/india): South Asia - [United States of America](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/united-states-of-america): North America - [Indonesia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/indonesia): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Pakistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/pakistan): South Asia - [Brazil](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/brazil): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Nigeria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/nigeria): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Bangladesh](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bangladesh): South Asia - [Russia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/russia): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Mexico](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mexico): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Japan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/japan): East Asia - [Ethiopia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ethiopia): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Philippines](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/philippines): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Egypt](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/egypt): Middle East & North Africa - [Vietnam](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/vietnam): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/dem-rep-congo): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Turkey](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/turkey): Middle East & North Africa - [Germany](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/germany): Western & Central Europe - [Iran](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/iran): Middle East & North Africa - [Thailand](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/thailand): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [France](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/france): Western & Central Europe - [United Kingdom](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/united-kingdom): Western & Central Europe - [Italy](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/italy): Western & Central Europe - [South Africa](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/south-africa): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Tanzania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tanzania): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Myanmar](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/myanmar): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Kenya](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kenya): Sub-Saharan Africa - [South Korea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/south-korea): East Asia - [Colombia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/colombia): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Spain](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/spain): Western & Central Europe - [Argentina](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/argentina): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Ukraine](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ukraine): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Uganda](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/uganda): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Algeria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/algeria): Middle East & North Africa - [Sudan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sudan): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Iraq](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/iraq): Middle East & North Africa - [Afghanistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/afghanistan): South Asia - [Poland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/poland): Western & Central Europe - [Canada](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/canada): North America - [Morocco](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/morocco): Middle East & North Africa - [Saudi Arabia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/saudi-arabia): Middle East & North Africa - [Uzbekistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/uzbekistan): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Peru](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/peru): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Malaysia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/malaysia): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Angola](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/angola): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Ghana](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ghana): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Mozambique](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mozambique): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Yemen](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/yemen): Middle East & North Africa - [Nepal](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/nepal): South Asia - [Venezuela](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/venezuela): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Madagascar](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/madagascar): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Cameroon](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cameroon): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Côte d'Ivoire](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cote-d-ivoire): Sub-Saharan Africa - [North Korea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/north-korea): East Asia - [Australia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/australia): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Taiwan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/taiwan): East Asia - [Niger](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/niger): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Sri Lanka](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sri-lanka): South Asia - [Burkina Faso](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/burkina-faso): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Mali](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mali): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Romania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/romania): Western & Central Europe - [Chile](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/chile): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Malawi](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/malawi): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Kazakhstan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kazakhstan): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Zambia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/zambia): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Ecuador](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ecuador): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Netherlands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/netherlands): Western & Central Europe - [Syria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/syria): Middle East & North Africa - [Guatemala](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guatemala): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Cambodia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cambodia): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Senegal](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/senegal): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Chad](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/chad): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Somalia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/somalia): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Zimbabwe](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/zimbabwe): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Guinea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guinea): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Rwanda](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/rwanda): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Benin](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/benin): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Tunisia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tunisia): Middle East & North Africa - [Burundi](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/burundi): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Bolivia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bolivia): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Belgium](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/belgium): Western & Central Europe - [Cuba](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cuba): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Haiti](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/haiti): Latin America & the Caribbean - [South Sudan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/s-sudan): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Dominican Republic](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/dominican-rep): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Greece](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/greece): Western & Central Europe - [Czechia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/czechia): Western & Central Europe - [Sweden](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sweden): Western & Central Europe - [Portugal](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/portugal): Western & Central Europe - [Jordan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/jordan): Middle East & North Africa - [Azerbaijan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/azerbaijan): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [United Arab Emirates](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/united-arab-emirates): Middle East & North Africa - [Hungary](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/hungary): Western & Central Europe - [Honduras](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/honduras): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Belarus](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/belarus): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Tajikistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tajikistan): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Israel](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/israel): Middle East & North Africa - [Austria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/austria): Western & Central Europe - [Papua New Guinea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/papua-new-guinea): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Switzerland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/switzerland): Western & Central Europe - [Togo](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/togo): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Sierra Leone](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sierra-leone): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Hong Kong](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/hong-kong): East Asia - [Laos](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/laos): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Paraguay](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/paraguay): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Bulgaria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bulgaria): Western & Central Europe - [Serbia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/serbia): Western & Central Europe - [Lebanon](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/lebanon): Middle East & North Africa - [Libya](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/libya): Middle East & North Africa - [Nicaragua](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/nicaragua): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Kyrgyzstan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kyrgyzstan): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [El Salvador](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/el-salvador): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Eritrea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/eritrea): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Turkmenistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/turkmenistan): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Denmark](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/denmark): Western & Central Europe - [Singapore](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/singapore): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Finland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/finland): Western & Central Europe - [Slovakia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/slovakia): Western & Central Europe - [Congo](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/congo): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Norway](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/norway): Western & Central Europe - [Costa Rica](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/costa-rica): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Oman](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/oman): Middle East & North Africa - [Ireland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ireland): Western & Central Europe - [Liberia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/liberia): Sub-Saharan Africa - [New Zealand](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/new-zealand): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Central African Republic](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/central-african-rep): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Palestine](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/palestine): Middle East & North Africa - [Mauritania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mauritania): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Panama](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/panama): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Kuwait](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kuwait): Middle East & North Africa - [Croatia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/croatia): Western & Central Europe - [Georgia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/georgia): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Uruguay](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/uruguay): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bosnia-and-herz): Western & Central Europe - [Mongolia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mongolia): East Asia - [Puerto Rico](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/puerto-rico): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Armenia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/armenia): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Jamaica](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/jamaica): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Albania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/albania): Western & Central Europe - [Qatar](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/qatar): Middle East & North Africa - [Lithuania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/lithuania): Western & Central Europe - [Moldova](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/moldova): Eastern Europe & Central Asia - [Namibia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/namibia): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Gambia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/gambia): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Botswana](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/botswana): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Gabon](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/gabon): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Lesotho](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/lesotho): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Slovenia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/slovenia): Western & Central Europe - [North Macedonia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/north-macedonia): Western & Central Europe - [Guinea-Bissau](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guinea-bissau): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Latvia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/latvia): Western & Central Europe - [Kosovo](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kosovo): Western & Central Europe - [Bahrain](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bahrain): Middle East & North Africa - [Cyprus](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cyprus): Western & Central Europe - [Trinidad and Tobago](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/trinidad-and-tobago): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Equatorial Guinea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/eq-guinea): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Estonia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/estonia): Western & Central Europe - [Timor-Leste](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/timor-leste): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Mauritius](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mauritius): Sub-Saharan Africa - [eSwatini](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/eswatini): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Djibouti](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/djibouti): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Fiji](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/fiji): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Comoros](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/comoros): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Guyana](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guyana): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Bhutan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bhutan): South Asia - [Solomon Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/solomon-is): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Macao](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/macao): East Asia - [Montenegro](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/montenegro): Western & Central Europe - [Luxembourg](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/luxembourg): Western & Central Europe - [Western Sahara](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/western-sahara): Middle East & North Africa - [Suriname](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/suriname): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Cabo Verde](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cabo-verde): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Maldives](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/maldives): South Asia - [Malta](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/malta): Western & Central Europe - [Brunei](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/brunei): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Belize](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/belize): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Bahamas](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bahamas): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Iceland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/iceland): Western & Central Europe - [Vanuatu](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/vanuatu): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [New Caledonia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/new-caledonia): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Barbados](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/barbados): Latin America & the Caribbean - [French Polynesia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/fr-polynesia): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [São Tomé and Principe](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sao-tome-and-principe): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Samoa](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/samoa): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Saint Lucia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/saint-lucia): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Guam](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guam): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Curaçao](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/curacao): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Kiribati](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kiribati): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Micronesia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/micronesia): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Grenada](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/grenada): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-vin-and-gren): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Jersey](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/jersey): Western & Central Europe - [Virgin Islands of the United States](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/u-s-virgin-is): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Aruba](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/aruba): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Tonga](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tonga): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Seychelles](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/seychelles): Sub-Saharan Africa - [Antigua and Barbuda](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/antigua-and-barb): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Isle of Man](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/isle-of-man): Western & Central Europe - [Andorra](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/andorra): Western & Central Europe - [Dominica](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/dominica): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Cayman Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cayman-is): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Bermuda](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bermuda): North America - [Guernsey](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guernsey): Western & Central Europe - [Marshall Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/marshall-is): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Northern Mariana Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/n-mariana-is): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Greenland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/greenland): North America - [American Samoa](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/american-samoa): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-kitts-and-nevis): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Faeroe Is.](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/faeroe-is): Western & Central Europe - [Sint Maarten](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sint-maarten): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Monaco](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/monaco): Western & Central Europe - [Turks and Caicos Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/turks-and-caicos-is): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Liechtenstein](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/liechtenstein): Western & Central Europe - [St-Martin](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-martin): Latin America & the Caribbean - [San Marino](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/san-marino): Western & Central Europe - [British Virgin Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/british-virgin-is): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Åland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/aland): Western & Central Europe - [Palau](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/palau): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Cook Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cook-is): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Anguilla](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/anguilla): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Nauru](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/nauru): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Tuvalu](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tuvalu): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [St-Barthélemy](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-barthelemy): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Saint Pierre and Miquelon](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-pierre-and-miquelon): North America - [Montserrat](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/montserrat): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Falkland Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/falkland-is): Latin America & the Caribbean - [Niue](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/niue): Southeast Asia & Oceania - [Vatican](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/vatican): Western & Central Europe --- # The State of Inequality within Minority Groups URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/the-state-of-inequality-within-minority-groups Published: 2025-03-03 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Marcus Oda, Thomas Lantos Intitute (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/marcus-oda-thomas-lantos-intitute) Category: Living Conditions Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) The definition of “ minority” is not conclusive and universally agreed upon. However, Generally speaking, the term “minorities” often applies to a wide range of groups, such as racial minorities, LGBT people, people with disabilities, or those with minority political opinions. However, in the eyes of international law, the term applies specifically to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. Some examples of Minorities are Swedish-speaking people in Finland, Romani in Central and Eastern Europe, and Kurds in Iraq and Turkey. ## Summary - The term “minorities” can apply to various groups, such as racial minorities, LGBT people, people with disabilities, or those with minority political opinions. - There is a lack of consensus on an internationally accepted definition of the term minority. - Exploring minority rights from different perspectives and looking into how emerging issues, such as climate change, exacerbate inequalities and affect the lives of persons belonging to minorities is essential. ## Subtopic 1: What is A Minority? - The definition of “ minority” is not conclusive and universally agreed upon. However, Generally speaking, the term “minorities” often applies to a wide range of groups, such as racial minorities, LGBT people, people with disabilities, or those with minority political opinions. However, in the eyes o In common usage, the term “minorities” can apply to a wide range of groups, such as racial minorities, LGBT people, people with disabilities, or to those with minority political opinions. Under international law, however, the term applies specifically to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. Although dominant (majority) and non-dominant (minority) groups have existed throughout history, the concepts of “minority” and “majority”, and the recognition of specific rights for minority communities are relatively recent developments under international law^[[1]](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/HR-PUB-12-07_en.pdf) The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious, and Linguistic Minorities (UNDM), adopted in 1992, is the fullest elaboration of minority rights^[[2]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/declaration-rights-persons-belonging-national-or-ethnic) at the international level. It refers to national or ethnic, linguistic, and religious minorities, but does not contain a definition of who exactly are minorities. The wide range of situations in which minorities live makes it difficult to find a one-size-fits all definition. Guidance on this issue often looks to the numerical size, non-dominant position, and the ethnic, linguistic or religious characteristics of the group in question, as well as their desire to preserve their distinct identity. Nevertheless, there continues to be debates over who constitute minorities, and the scope of minority rights. Despite the lack of consensus on an internationally accepted definition of the term minority, or on who can be minorities under international law, nearly every country in the world is home to minority groups. Examples include Roma people in Europe, Afro-descendants across the Americas, Muslims in India, English-speakers in Cameroon, Uyghurs in China, Turks in Greece, Russian-speakers in the Baltic countries, and indigenous populations in many countries of the world. These groups only represent a small percentage of the world’s minorities^[[3]](https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/10387?v=pdf) . ​Given that minority groups inhabit nearly every country and region of the world, minority issues continue to be acutely relevant. Recent events, such as the war in Ukraine, the Black Lives Matter movement, ethnic violence in Ethiopia, and the wide-scale internment of Uyghurs in China, demonstrate that the treatment of minorities can have repercussions on the larger society, the economy, and global politics. As human and minority rights activists continue to advocate for the protection of minorities and work to reduce inequalities, new issues have come to the fore in relation to persons belonging to minorities. Intersectionality, climate justice, and decolonizing international law and human rights have opened new areas of inquiry into how minority rights are conceptualized, and how existing inequalities continue to affect the lives of persons belonging to minorities^[[4]](https://www.minorityforum.info/files/connected_docs/static/minority-rights-guide-en-139.pdf) . ## Subtopic 2: Minority Rights - Minority groups are in nearly every country and region of the world, so therefore minority issues continue to be acutely relevant. The United Nations General Assembly adopted its fullest elaboration of minority rights with the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Rel #### History of Minority Rights With the development of nation-states in the 18th and 19th Centuries, minority groups with distinct ethnic, religious, and linguistic identities began to make efforts to preserve their unique identities. Such efforts gained steam following the end of World War I, when many of the great empires of Europe collapsed and new states were established along ethnic and/or linguistic lines. There was increased pressure^[[5]](https://www.minorityforum.info/minority-rights-guide) on minority groups to adopt majority languages and cultures due to assimilationist policies by nation-states, economic and industrial advancements, and the often arbitrary drawing of new borders that cut off large populations from their kin-states. > A nation-state is a political unit where the majority of its citizens are united by a common national identity, such as ethnicity. This term is more specific than “country”, since a country may be multinational or multicultural. For example, the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after the end of World War I resulted in the establishment of new nation-states, such as independent Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia, with significant ethnic and linguistic minorities living within these newly-formed states. Romania, for instance, inherited the formerly Hungarian territory of Transylvania, as well as a large Hungarian population living in this area. As a result, minority issues were a key concern for the League of Nations, the first intergovernmental organization established at the end of World War I and tasked with maintaining world peace. Protecting the rights of minorities living in newly created states and territories in Central and Eastern Europe and the Middle East was seen as a way to ensure stability and security. > Intergovernmental organizations are generally composed of member states and established by a treaty that acts as a charter for the organization. Examples of intergovernmental organizations include the United Nations, NATO, the Council of Europe, and the World Health Organization. To this end, the League imposed so-called minority treaties on these newly created states as a condition for membership. These treaties generally contained the rights to equality and non-discrimination, the right to citizenship, the right to use one’s own language, and the right to establish minority religious, cultural, and educational institutions. Although these minority treaties were limited in scope and did not establish any universal recognition and application of the rights contained in them, they represent an important step^[[6]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/publications/special-issue-publications/promoting-and-protecting-minority-rights-guide-advocates) in the establishment of minority rights in international law. One of the first such disputes resolved by the League of Nations related to the Åland Islands dispute between Sweden and Finland. The islands were home to a Swedish-speaking population, but belonged to Finland. The islanders wished to exercise their right to self-determination and reunite with Sweden. This was rejected by the Finnish government, which attempted to adopt an autonomy act for the islands, which was in turn rejected by the Åland Islanders. The League of Nations, fearing the destabilization of the Baltic region and an open conflict between Sweden and Finland, stepped in and granted^[[7]](https://brill.com/view/journals/ijgr/20/1/article-p51_4.xml) sovereignty over the islands to Finland on the condition that it guaranteed the islanders their rights to use their language, practice their culture, and a system of self-government. Unfortunately, within a couple of decades, the Holocaust and other atrocities committed against minorities during World War II made it clear that the protections contained in the minority treaties and the League of Nations itself were insufficient. The United Nations was established to replace the dissolved League of Nations, and assume its task of maintaining and promoting world peace. > A treaty is binding in that states commit to bind themselves under international law to conform to its provisions. States must ratify a treaty, and submit reports on their compliance with it. A declaration, on the other hand, is a statement simply recognizing certain universal principles, rather than an undertaking of any legal obligations. States do not need to ratify declarations, or submit reports on their compliance with them. Since its establishment, the United Nations has adopted^[[8]](https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter) a number of human rights treaties that offer protections to minorities by prohibiting discrimination based on race, religion, and language, as well as the crimes of genocide and ethnic cleansing. Ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities are also given^[[9]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights#:~:text=or%20other%20status.-,Article%2027,to%20use%20their%20own%20language.) the right to enjoy their own cultures, practice their own religions, and speak their own languages. Despite the protections afforded by certain provisions in the UN’s human rights treaties, no legally binding treaty was ever adopted that deals with minority rights specifically. In 1992, the United Nations General Assembly adopted its fullest elaboration of minority rights with the [Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/declaration-rights-persons-belonging-national-or-ethnic) (UNDM). It is important to note, however, that the Declaration is not a binding treaty and does not impose legal obligations on states. ## Subtopic 3: Minorities and Inequalities - Minorities are disproportionately subjected to human rights violations ranging from discrimination to exclusion from political and economic life, hate crimes, and genocide. Inequalities related to statelessness, education, economic participation, and health, in particular, can have a devastating eff Although minorities are entitled to enjoy all fundamental human rights on an equal basis with others, and despite the specific minority rights afforded to them in the UNDM, minorities around the world continue to suffer from severe inequalities. For example, the United States Census Bureau reports^[[10]](https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2022/demo/p60-277.html) that the poverty rate among Black and Hispanic people is more than double that among Whites. In the Balkans, upwards of 60% of Roma youth do not attend^[[11]](https://www.unesco.org/gem-report/en/node/132) secondary school, while national averages are closer to 6% for this indicator. According to the World Health Organization, persons belonging to minorities experience inequalities^[[12]](https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240057104) in accessing healthcare and suffer from poorer health outcomes compared to persons belonging to majority populations. Minorities face inequalities for a wide range of reasons ranging from prejudice, bias, and stereotypes, to historical factors, such as slavery and colonialism, to entrenched power structures that privilege the majority. Minorities are disproportionately subjected to human rights violations ranging from discrimination to exclusion from political and economic life, to hate crimes, to genocide. Inequalities related to statelessness, education, economic participation, health and participation in criminal justice in particular can have a devastating effect on the well-being and livelihoods of persons belonging to minorities and on the enjoyment of their other human rights. These five specific issues were selected as they illustrate the wide range of inequalities faced by minorities, which affect the enjoyment of their civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. #### Statelessness ​According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), more than 75% of the world’s known stateless populations belong^[[13]](https://www.unhcr.org/ibelong/stateless-minorities/) to minorities. Examples of stateless minority groups include Russian speakers in Latvia who were denied citizenship after the fall of the Soviet Union, Roma people in North Macedonia, and the Karana, a predominantly Muslim minority in Madagascar. > According to the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, a stateless person is “a person who is not considered as a national by any State under the operation of its law”. Statelessness affecting minorities can be the result of deliberate targeting of certain ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups, or based on discriminatory policies and practices that disproportionately affect such groups. In either case, the denial of citizenship to minorities severely limits their opportunity to effectively and meaningfully participate in public life, and to fully realize their human rights. Furthermore, the denial of citizenship represents a vicious cycle, as minorities are often denied citizenship due to discriminatory laws and practices, while their lack of citizenship can result in further discrimination, exclusion, and inequality. The denial of citizenship and lack of official documentation impacts the enjoyment of a wide range of other human rights. Stateless persons generally face difficulties in accessing public health and social assistance services, education, and employment opportunities, and may not be able to own property or secure housing, take out loans, or travel abroad. As a result, stateless persons face financial insecurity, which can expose them to exploitation and poverty. Stateless persons may also be subjected^[[14]](https://www.unhcr.org/ibelong/stateless-minorities/) to physical violence connected with their stateless status, as well as persecution, detention, or extortion from law enforcement officials when they are unable to produce official identification documents. #### Education ​The realization of the right to education is considered^[[15]](https://minorityrights.org/publications/state-of-the-worlds-minorities-and-indigenous-peoples-2009-july-2009/) a crucial right for minorities. Education represents an important means of escaping the cycle of exclusion and marginalization that minorities often find themselves in. It is a gateway to effective participation in public and economic life. Education also allows^[[16]](https://minorityrights.org/publications/state-of-the-worlds-minorities-and-indigenous-peoples-2009-july-2009/) minorities to transmit their languages, cultures, and histories, thereby preserving their identity and existence as distinct groups. Nonetheless, persons belonging to minorities face discrimination and stigma when accessing educational opportunities and are often only provided with poor-quality education. Such inequalities are backed up by data^[[17]](https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/old-site-downloads/download-655-A-world-of-discrimination.pdf) : of the 101 million children out of school, and the approximately 776 million illiterate adults, the majority belong to ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. The former UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education, Katarina Tomasevski, developed the “four As” framework, by which education must be available (free and government-funded), accessible (non-discriminatory and accessible to all), acceptable (culturally appropriate and good-quality), and adaptable (evolving with society). Nevertheless, education for minorities often does not meet^[[18]](https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/old-site-downloads/download-655-A-world-of-discrimination.pdf) this criteria. Minority children have reduced or lack access to schooling due to discriminatory national laws or policies, poverty, and a lack of or inadequate educational institutions in the areas in which they live. When schooling is available, the language of instruction is often the majority language, rather than the mother tongues of persons belonging to minorities. Minority children may face discrimination or abuse from fellow students or even teachers. Meanwhile, educational institutions for minorities are often underfunded and overcrowded, and lack the necessary teaching materials, facilities, and qualified teachers. Such inequalities in education in relation to minorities perpetuate the cycle of poverty and exclusion faced by minorities and hinder their effective participation in public and economic life. The case of Romania, a state that provides relatively strong support for minority language education, primarily Hungarian, demonstrates how inequalities within education for minorities can lead to poorer outcomes for minority students. Romanian law recognizes^[[19]](https://www.gencat.cat/llengua/noves/noves/hm04tardor/docs/constantin.pdf) the right of minority language education at all levels, encourages the formation of separate minority schools, and provides minorities with some control over the educational process. At the same time, data shows that the qualification of teaching faculty in Hungarian schools is lower than the national average. Moreover, the quality of infrastructure was found to be lower in Hungarian classrooms, which are generally more poorly equipped with teaching equipment and modern technologies. Hungarian students also had a lower success rate on official examinations (54% compared to the national average of 63%), which leads to the fact that they are underrepresented in institutions of higher education. #### Economic participation ​According to Article 2 of the UNDM^[[20]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/declaration-rights-persons-belonging-national-or-ethnic) , “persons belonging to minorities have the right to participate effectively […] in economic […] life.” Nevertheless, minorities often face exclusion in economic life due to inequalities stemming from statelessness and a lack of educational opportunities, as mentioned above, as well as to a variety of other factors, such as stigma, discrimination, and exclusionary laws and practices. > Participation in economic life covers a wide range of issues, and implies that minorities should have equal and equitable access to the labor market, business, self-employment, property rights, and other related areas. Data from countries ranging from Benin to Guatemala to Vietnam shows^[[21]](https://odi.org/en/publications/who-is-being-left-behind-in-sub-saharan-africa-asia-and-latin-america/) that national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities are disproportionately represented among the poorest and most economically disadvantaged groups, and are much more likely to live in poverty. Economic inequality is manifested in a number of different ways. Discrimination against minorities in the field of employment is widespread, with many being passed over for employment opportunities on the basis of their ethnic, religious, or linguistic identity. Persons belonging to minorities are also underrepresented within public institutions, such as law enforcement agencies, judiciaries, and state ministries. Many minorities live in poor and/or remote regions of their countries, with limited^[[22]](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/MinorityIssues/MinorityForum3Conceptnote_en.pdf) employment and economic development opportunities. In addition, persons belonging to minorities are often excluded from decision-making on economic and development projects and initiatives that affect them. When minorities are not consulted on, given the opportunity to consent to, and provided compensation for such activities, this often results^[[23]](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/MinorityIssues/MinorityForum3Conceptnote_en.pdf) in the exploitation of their lands, environmental damage, forced displacement, and violence. Inequalities related to the economic participation of minorities affect^[[24]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/a76162-minority-issues-note-secretary-general) the realization of their other human rights. A lack of economic opportunities and increased poverty stemming from their economic exclusion can hamper their access to health services, education, political participation, and access to justice. Economic inequality also leaves minorities more vulnerable to exploitation, hunger, violence, and other abuses. #### Health ​The recent COVID-19 pandemic has brought to light the severe health-related inequalities that minority communities face around the globe. The pandemic had a wide range of disproportionate, adverse impacts on persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. For example, data from the United States shows^[[25]](https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/89820) that Native American and Black persons are 5 times more likely to be hospitalized due to COVID-19, while Hispanic and Latino persons are 4 times more likely to be hospitalized. Persons belonging to minorities also suffered from higher death rates than majority communities. They faced increased poverty due to COVID-related emergency restrictions and the resulting economic downturn. Persons belonging to minorities were also the targets^[[26]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/tools-and-resources/covid-19-and-minority-rights-overview-and-promising-practices) of hate speech, hate crimes, and stigma due to baseless accusations that they were “responsible” for the pandemic. Beyond the COVID-19 pandemic, minorities are faced with acute inequalities in relation to health and are often denied the full realization of their right to health. A wide range of factors contribute to this situation. Racism, stigma, and other systemic barriers in healthcare systems and society in general often mean that minorities are left behind in public health and prevention measures. Furthermore, they may avoid seeking care or drop out of treatment due to distrust of the healthcare system and medical workers, language barriers, or culturally insensitive medical practices. Minorities also often have higher rates^[[27]](https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/89820) of chronic illness and other underlying medical conditions that put them at greater risk of death or other severe illnesses. The living conditions of minorities can have a negative impact on their health. Minorities often live in segregated areas^[[28]](https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/89820) with higher levels of exposure to pollution and environmental hazards, and are over-represented among homeless populations, prisoners, and detainees, resulting in poorer health outcomes among minority groups. Finally, economic factors can also contribute to the health inequities faced by persons belonging to minorities. Lower-income and educational levels, and unemployment affect^[[29]](https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/89820) access to and the quality of medical care for minorities. #### Criminal Justice System The Black Lives Matter movement, which originated in the United States in response to police brutality and racially motivated violence against black people, has brought the issue of inequalities in criminal justice systems to widespread international attention. National or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities face discrimination and inequalities within criminal justice systems for a variety of reasons ranging from widespread racism to structural failures within policing and justice systems. In the United States, for example, black people^[[30]](https://naacp.org/resources/criminal-justice-fact-sheet) are 2.5 times more likely to experience the use of non-fatal force than white people, while their death rates from police violence are similarly higher. Black people are incarcerated at a rate 5 times more than white people. Despite representing only 13% of the total population, 35% of the people who have been executed in the last 40 years were black. Although international human rights law prohibits discrimination in the justice system and imposes obligations on states to ensure that justice systems take into account the specific situations of minorities, minorities around the world face a wide range of inequalities at all stages of the criminal justice system.  As the example of the United States shows, minorities are often subjected^[[31]](https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/237/76/PDF/N1523776.pdf?OpenElement) to discrimination at the stage of policing, including arbitrary stops and arrests, and the use of force and other ill treatment. Minorities also face^[[32]](https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/237/76/PDF/N1523776.pdf?OpenElement) a number of barriers to equal treatment and non-discrimination in judicial processes. They may not have the resources to hire lawyers, and are more likely to rely on free legal aid. Linguistic minorities, in particular, may be disadvantaged, as in many cases they are not able to fully understand the language of proceedings, when the use of minority languages is not guaranteed^[[33]](https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/237/76/PDF/N1523776.pdf?OpenElement) by legal systems. Discrimination on the part of judges, prosecutors, and juries can also influence legal proceedings in relation to minorities, and result in higher levels of incarceration, longer sentences, and other unequal treatment. When minorities are the victims of crimes, they are often unable^[[34]](https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/237/76/PDF/N1523776.pdf?OpenElement) to seek justice. Police may be less inclined to investigate crimes against minorities, or minorities themselves may be reluctant to report crimes due to a fear of discrimination and revictimization by law enforcement officials. Such factors can further contribute^[[35]](https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/237/76/PDF/N1523776.pdf?OpenElement) to the inequalities faced by minorities in everyday life, as they are more vulnerable to discrimination, violence, and other mistreatment, particularly when such human rights violations are met with impunity. ## Subtopic 4: Current Issues in Minority Rights - Some of the recent events, such as the war in Ukraine, the Black Lives Matter movement, ethnic violence in Ethiopia, and the wide-scale internment of Uyghurs in China, demonstrate that the treatment of minorities can impact society, the economy, and global politics. New issues have come up concernin ​In recent years, academics and activists have begun examining new issues related to minority rights, for example, how intersectional discrimination and climate change affect persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. As minority issues continue to be relevant in the modern world, exploring minority rights from different perspectives, and looking into how emerging issues, such as climate change, exacerbate inequalities and affect the lives of persons belonging to minorities will be crucial to addressing the marginalization and exclusion that they continue to face.​ #### Intersectionality ​Intersectionality is a framework used in academia for examining how a person’s various identities can overlap and exacerbate inequalities and oppression and result in multiple, overlapping forms of discrimination, stigma, and exclusion. The concept of intersectionality has its roots^[[36]](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/minorities/30th-anniversary/2022-09-22/GuidanceNoteonIntersectionality.pdf) in the civil rights movement of the 1950s-60s, and was later used by Black feminists in the 1980s to explore the racial and gender discrimination faced by Black women in the United States. Since then, intersectionality has assumed a greater role in human rights discourse, and in the field of anti-discrimination. In relation to minorities, intersectionality provides a framework for exploring how persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities may be subjected to multiple, intersecting forms of discrimination and exclusion due to their other statuses, such as sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, migrant status, age, sex, caste, and others. ​An intersectional approach is considered essential^[[37]](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/minorities/30th-anniversary/2022-09-22/GuidanceNoteonIntersectionality.pdf) by many to tackle the inequalities and discrimination faced by persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. Most often, persons affected by intersectional discrimination belong to the most marginalized segments of the population, may face discrimination from other members of their minority group due to their other status(es), and are in need of targeted policies and programs to address and prevent discrimination. Intersectional approaches to address such discrimination and inequalities while taking into account diversity within minority groups can be a useful way^[[38]](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/minorities/30th-anniversary/2022-09-22/GuidanceNoteonIntersectionality.pdf) to promote greater inclusion of persons affecting by intersectional discrimination in the development of policies and programs affecting them. A number of practical measures can help to guarantee^[[39]](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/minorities/30th-anniversary/2022-09-22/GuidanceNoteonIntersectionality.pdf) that intersectionality is taken into account. These include: collecting and analyzing disaggregated data on people who experience inequality and discrimination, and documenting their experiences; creating safe spaces where people affected by intersectional forms of discrimination can voice their issues and concerns; enacting legal reforms to combat discrimination and inequality; raising awareness about human rights, and various forms of intolerance; and providing trainings and other educational activities to relevant stakeholders on non-discrimination, intersectionality, inclusion, and equality. In addition, recognizing intersectional experiences and perspectives in schools and universities can make these spaces more inclusive, and being to tackle inequalities faced by those who face intersectional discrimination. #### Climate Justice ​Climate change and its impact on society, the environment, and natural resources are already being felt around the world. As with many other current challenges, the effects of climate change reinforce existing inequalities and disproportionately affect populations that are already suffering from discrimination, including persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities, and indigenous peoples. Climate justice, which entails a response to climate change that is based on respect for human rights, is a pressing issue for minorities who are already living with many of the adverse effects of our changing climate. > Indigenous peoples, who are often in non-dominant positions and numerically inferior, can be minorities, but are also distinguished by specific histories and experiences with settler colonization, and deep-rooted ties to traditional lands. ​As discussed in previous sections, minorities experience increased vulnerability due to inequalities, discrimination, and exclusion. This is also true with climate change. As a result of the discrimination and inequalities they face, many minorities live in poverty in at-risk locations^[[40]](https://minorityrights.org/publications/minority-and-indigenous-trends-2019/) within urban areas or the countryside. Their settlements are disproportionately affected by extreme weather, flooding, and other environmental hazards. In addition, due to systemic discrimination, including within state policies and programs, minorities are often excluded from efforts to prevent climate-related disasters or responses when disasters occur. Language barriers can also exacerbate^[[41]](https://minorityrights.org/publications/minority-and-indigenous-trends-2019/) the effects of climate change, when governments fail to provide information in minority languages about prevention measures or warnings of extreme climate-related events. ​Many minority groups, in particular indigenous peoples, have a close relationship with the environment and depend on local natural resources for their livelihoods, for example, groups living in Arctic regions or rain forests. As a result, minorities are often susceptible^[[42]](https://minorityrights.org/publications/minority-and-indigenous-trends-2019/) to the effects of climate change, which can have devastating impacts on their access to water, land, and food, leaving them unable to sustain their traditional livelihoods and ways of life. Finally, the right to effective participation of persons belonging to minorities is often curtailed in relation to climate change. This can include using and exploiting their lands without prior consultation and consent in the name of conservation, as well as their exclusion from global governance structures tasked with addressing climate change. As a result, historical discrimination and exclusion faced by minorities is perpetuated even within the context of new global challenges, such as climate change. ## Subtopic 5: Ways Forward - Protecting and promoting diversity, in part by protecting the rights of minorities and ensuring their inclusion in fields such as education, public administration, and economic life, can also affect the broader society. Minorities can contribute their diverse perspectives, knowledge, and experiences Around the world persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities continue to face discrimination and suffer from inequalities in many areas of life. They are often at risk of human rights violations, economic insecurity, lower educational levels, poorer health, and a lack of access to justice. Minorities with intersectional identities, such as minorities with disabilities, LGBT minorities, and minority women and girls are in particularly vulnerable situations. Meanwhile, current issues, such as climate change, often have a disproportionate negative impact on minorities. Minority issues and the protection of the human rights of minorities have wider relevance beyond just minorities themselves. For instance, addressing inequalities and promoting inclusive societies are key factors in ensuring peaceful societies and preventing conflict. Indeed, many of the conflicts ongoing today have a minority dimension, such as the war in Ukraine or the civil conflict in Ethiopia. Protecting the rights of minorities is one way to prevent such violence from taking place. Protecting and promoting diversity, in part by protecting the rights of minorities and ensuring their inclusion in fields such as education, public administration, and economic life, can also affect the wider society in general. Minorities can contribute their diverse perspectives, knowledge, and experiences in a variety of areas to strengthen society and its institutions, and improve its problem-solving capacity. Responding to climate change and global warming is just one example of this. Many minority groups, particularly indigenous peoples, maintain^[[43]](https://minorityrights.org/publications/minority-and-indigenous-trends-2019/) traditional practices and knowledge systems, and unique understandings of their ecosystems that allow them to respond to environmental changes, and live sustainably off natural resources. Responses to climate change and global warming, as well as efforts to promote sustainably, are beginning to recognize the role that minority communities can play in developing strategies^[[44]](https://minorityrights.org/publications/minority-and-indigenous-trends-2019/) to protect our ecosystems. These are just a few examples of how respect for minority rights, ensuring the participation of minorities in economic and public life, and reducing inequalities in education, health, justice, and other areas can contribute to more stable and robust societies. ## Sources and further reading - [How Income Inequality Became A Big Issue Among Asian Americans](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_61OK651AsQ) — CNBC, 2021 - [Is the U.S. losing its China towns?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oh5WVFK2lhE) — CNBC, 2021 - [Racism in Germany](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-h8sMEXj_1g) — Deutsche Welle, 2023 - [EU Minorities and Discrimination Survey](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEsAIvZSscY) — European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2017 - [What's it like being a member of staff from an ethnic minority background in the NHS?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f1AD0ferKt8) — The King's Fund, 2020 - [Discrimination: Crash Course Government and Politics](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-yviKu8Odo) — CrashCourse, 2015 - [What Discrimination Looks Like In America](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qwIjKuitlu8) — NowThis News, 2016 - [The Story of Climate Justice](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KYSXhiEgSI) — Greenpeace International, 2018 - [What is Climate Justice?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y3s58Ang5qI) — Global Landscapes Forum, 2022 - [This is just how unfair climate change is](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHRu0VV-Dbw) — Deutsche Welle, 2021 - [Climate Justice And Human Rights Explained](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jwJAb9aAItI) — Amnesty International, 2022 - [What is Climate Justice?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qAHp1fPEDk) — Oxfam, 2021 - [Racial Inequality in the Criminal Justice system](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zf-4iE4vzgM) — Learn Liberty, 2020 - [The shocking reality of health inequality](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tt9kMSf8R5Y) — BBC, 2021 - [Intersectionality 101](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w6dnj2IyYjE) — Learning for Justice, 2016 - [Systemic Racism Explained](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YrHIQIO_bdQ) — ACT.TV, 2019 - [What Racism Looks Like](https://fpg.unc.edu/sites/fpg.unc.edu/files/resource-files/What%20Racism%20Looks%20Like%2010.pdf) — University of North Carolina, 2020 - [Race report statistics](https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/race-report-statistics) — Equality and Human Rights Commission, 2020 - [Racial Economic Inequality](https://inequality.org/facts/racial-inequality/) — Inequality.org - [Race/ethnicity](https://nationalequityatlas.org/indicators/Race-ethnicity) — National Equity Atlas - [Diversity index](https://nationalequityatlas.org/indicators/Diversity_index) — National Equity Atlas - [A guide on the history and basics of intersectionality](https://www.uhclthesignal.com/wordpress/2020/03/16/infographic-a-guide-on-the-history-and-basics-of-intersectionality/) — Weidle, A. University of Houston-Clear Lake, 2020 - [Environmental Justice Index](https://onemap.cdc.gov/portal/apps/sites/#/eji-explorer) — United States Environmental Protection Agency - [Environmental Racism by the Numbers](https://medium.com/environmental-justice-coalition/environmental-racism-by-the-numbers-c7d3ceb7539c) — Matta, N. Medium, 2022 - [The Russian invasion of Ukraine shows that racism has no boundaries](https://www.brookings.edu/blog/how-we-rise/2022/03/03/the-russian-invasion-of-ukraine-shows-racism-has-no-boundaries/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/how-we-rise/2022/03/03/the-russian-invasion-of-ukraine-shows-racism-has-no-boundaries/) — Ray, R. Brookings Institute, 2022 - [Russia is sending its ethnic minorities into the meat grinder](https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/23/russia-partial-military-mobilization-ethnic-minorities/) — MackInnon, A. Foreign Policy, 2022 - [5 things COVID-19 has taught us about inequality](https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/08/5-things-covid-19-has-taught-us-about-inequality/) — Myers, J. World Economic Forum, 2020 - [Ethnic Chinese still grapple with discrimination despite generations in Indonesia](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/ethnic-chinese-still-grapple-with-discrimination-despite-generations-in-indonesia/2017/03/17/4abba780-0444-11e7-ad5b-d22680e18d10_story.html) — Bevins, V. The Washington Post, 2017 - [Implementing the ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention No. 169: Towards an inclusive, sustainable and just future](https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_735607/lang--en/index.htm) — International Labour organization, 2020 - [What Is Intersectionality and Why Is It Important?](https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/what-is-intersectionality-explained/) — El Gharib, S. 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Foreign Affairs, 2023 - [Iran’s forgotten ethnic minorities](https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/04/03/irans-forgotten-ethnic-minorities/) — Nader, A. and Stewart, R. Foreign Policy, 2013 - [The Long, Painful History of Police Brutality in the U.S.](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/long-painful-history-police-brutality-in-the-us-180964098/) — Nodjimbadem, K. Smithsonian, 2020 - [Is China Committing Genocide Against the Uyghurs?](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/is-china-committing-genocide-against-the-uyghurs-180979490/) — Boissoneault, L. Smithsonian, 2022 - [Statelessness in a Pandemic](https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/statelessness-pandemic-assam-national-register-of-citizens-by-amal-de-chickera-2021-07) — De Chickera, A. Project Syndicate, 2021 - [The Politics of Sexual Minorities in Japan](https://thediplomat.com/2023/03/the-politics-of-sexual-minorities-in-japan/) — Chotani, V. M. and Ammour-Mayeur, O. The Diplomat, 2023 - [In Indonesia, a Rising Tide of Religious Intolerance](https://thediplomat.com/2022/10/in-indonesia-a-rising-tide-of-religious-intolerance/) — Arman, L. The Diplomat, 2022 - [A Contentious Conversation on Systemic Racism in America](https://www.currentaffairs.org/2021/11/a-contentious-conversation-on-systemic-racism-in-america/) — Current Affairs, 2021 - [Double discrimination: why Uzbek women in Kyrgyzstan are a minority within a minority](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/double-discrimination-in-kyrgyzstan/) — Frank, Z. openDemocracy, 2018 - [The world's fight for 'climate justice'](https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211103-the-countries-calling-for-climate-justice) — Timperley, J. BBC, 2021 - [Roma and Travellers in six countries](https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/roma-travellers-survey) — European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2020 - [Race in America 2019](https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/04/09/race-in-america-2019/) — Menasce Horowitz, J., Brown A. and Cox, K. Pew Research Centre, 2019 - [Modern Workplace: Ethnic Diversity](https://www.ft.com/reports/modern-workplace-ethnic-diversity) — The Financial Times, 2018 - [Experiences and perceptions of antisemitism - Second survey on discrimination and hate crime against Jews in the EU](https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2018/experiences-and-perceptions-antisemitism-second-survey-discrimination-and-hate) — European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2018 - [Recognition of Minorities in Europe: Protecting Rights and Dignity](https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/old-site-downloads/download-47-Recognition-of-Minorities-in-Europe-Protecting-Rights-and-Dignity.pdf) — Dimitras, P. E. Minority Rights Group International, 2004 - [No Data is Data: What existing but untapped disaggregated data tells us about inequalities in vaccination rates within states in the Global South](https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/MRG_Brief_Data_EN_Jan23.pdf) — Thomas, C. Minority Rights Group International, 2023 - [Just Let us Be: Discrimination against LGBT students in the Philippines](https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/06/21/just-let-us-be/discrimination-against-lgbt-students-philippines) — Thoreson, R. 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Minority Rights Group International, 2023 - [Rights denied: The impact of discrimination on children](https://www.unicef.org/media/130801/file/rights-denied-discrimination-children-EN.pdf) — Unicef, 2022 - [Frontier dialogue consultations on addressing structural racial and ethnicity-based discrimination](https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/frontier-dialogue-consultations-on-addressing-structural-racial-and-ethnicity-based-discrimination) — World Health Organization, 2021 - [Strengthening primary health care to tackle racial discrimination, promote intercultural services and reduce health inequities](https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240057104) — World Health Organization, 2022 - [158 Resources to Understand Racism in America](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/158-resources-understanding-systemic-racism-america-180975029/) — Solly, M. 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Encyclopedia Princetoniensis - [Minorities and indigenous peoples](https://www.unhcr.org/minorities-and-indigenous-peoples) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - [What is Climate Justice?](https://centerclimatejustice.universityofcalifornia.edu/what-is-climate-justice/#:~:text=Climate%20justice%20connects%20the%20climate,least%20responsible%20for%20the%20problem.) — Center for Climate Justice - [Climate Justice](https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/climate-justice/) — United Nations - [What is meant by ‘climate justice’?](https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/explainers/what-is-meant-by-climate-justice/) — Macquarie, R. Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, 2022 - [Climate Justice](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-climate/) — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020 - [A New Social Contract for Global Climate Justice](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SxK5qD8sNL4) — Yusuf, H. TED, 2022 - [Climate justice can't happen without racial justice](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EkIpeO1r0NI) — Lammy, D. TED, 2020 - [Racism and Climate Change Are About You](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rtCU8iA3Zoo) — Martin, A. TEDx Talks, 2017 - [Online Discussion Health inequalities a challenge for Roma inclusion in Europe](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-RsJ0lZ4pQM) — European Public Health Alliance, 2020 - [Asian Americans Debate Model Minority & Asian Hate](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1FUue58GH8c) — VICE, 2022 - [An interview with the founders of Black Lives Matter](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbicAmaXYtM) — TED, 2016 - [Don’t Call Me Resilient](https://open.spotify.com/show/37tK4zmjWvq2Sh6jLIpzp7) — The Conversation, 2021 - [HomeGrown](https://open.spotify.com/show/6n9BU5Nan7SHzN9JqsDPGM?si=0C8S3DLFSzexmab3kX2I6A&nd=1) — Spotify - [Coming Out, Blak](https://open.spotify.com/show/093SeEdA5RLV7lbA4tKRhB) — Spotify - [Self Evident: Asian America’s Stories](https://open.spotify.com/show/4SQRsePgr3yeQwO6LocYK4) — Self Evident Media - [Intersectionality Matters!](https://open.spotify.com/show/5CEVNLkyQ1kAx2MTSJZJLP) — African American Policy Forum ## About the author: Marcus Oda, Thomas Lantos Intitute Marcus Oda is the Program Manager of the Human Rights of Minorities Program at the Tom Lantos Institute in Budapest, Hungary. Originally from Honolulu, Hawaii, Marcus holds a Bachelor’s degree in French Literature from Yale University and a Juris Doctorate from New York University. While at NYU, Marcus’ studies focused on international human rights law, minority rights, and international criminal law. He also served on the editorial board of the Journal of International Law and Politics. Marcus speaks English, French, Russian, Hungarian, and Italian. --- # Gender Equality and Poverty URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/gender-equality-and-poverty Published: 2025-02-12 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Naomi Finch, University of York (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/naomi-finch-university-of-york) Category: Living Conditions Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Across the world, women face higher rates of poverty than men. They are more likely to lack the income needed to cover their basic needs and tend to end up poor in old age more often than men. This systemic inequality stems from women's greater responsibility for unpaid care work and the barriers they face in the labour market. As a result, women’s independence and well-being suffers. To alleviate this inequality and female poverty, new policies and norms concerning earning, caregiving and gender seem necessary. ## Summary - Women's unpaid care work and lower earnings put them at high risks of poverty compared to men. - Labour markets disadvantage women due to the persistence of social norms. - Progress requires changing policies and social expectations so men share care responsibilities equally with women. - ‍ - ‍ ## Subtopic 1: Income Poverty and Gender - Across the world, women face higher rates of poverty than men. They are more likely to lack the income needed to cover their basic needs and tend to end up poor in old age more often than men. This systemic inequality stems from women's greater responsibility for unpaid care work and the barriers th It is challenging to measure poverty, due to the complex nature of poverty measures. When we discuss poverty, we often focus on income poverty — either absolute income poverty or relative income poverty — although there is debate about whether these are in fact different and whether more complex measures are more appropriate. Absolute poverty focuses more on the lowest income needed to secure the barest of living standards — to survive. The relative definition is based on contemporary norms and standards and, therefore, understands that the nature of poverty will be different in different societies and will change as society itself changes. Poverty, by this definition, can be where resources are so seriously below those commanded by the average household that the poor are excluded from ordinary customs and activities of society. Often, households are deemed poor if they have an income of 50 or 60 per cent of the median income. Women are more likely to be income-poor than men, with the average poverty rate for women across the OECD being 12.3 per cent, whereas it is 10.9 per cent for men. Women face^[[1]](https://www.oecd.org/social/society-at-a-glance-19991290.htm) a higher risk of poverty than men in all OECD countries, except Denmark, Finland and Greece, with the largest gender poverty gaps observed in Estonia, Latvia and Korea, where the poverty rates among females are 4 to 6 percentage points higher than men. Moreover, lone-parent families in the OECD, usually headed by women, are more likely^[[2]](https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/CO_2_2_Child_Poverty.pdf) to be in poverty (31.9%) than two-parent households, although the gap is small in Denmark, and particularly wide in Korea, Japan, New Zealand and Canada. Whilst one-earner households have the highest risk of poverty, there is also evidence^[[3]](https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=89&furtherNews=yes&langId=en&newsId=9378) that two-earner _low-wage_ households are not necessarily protected from poverty either. This indicates the importance of both mothers and fathers earning, and both parents earning a decent wage to reduce the poverty risk. Older women are also at greater risk of poverty^[[4]](https://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm) than older men, with an OECD average of 15.1% of women in poverty compared to 10.1% of men and 11.3% for the overall population, although there is no gender gap in Chile and little gender difference in Spain. ## Subtopic 2: Hidden Poverty: the Issue of Poverty Measurements - Statistics on poverty can be deceptive. This is mostly due to poverty being measured using households as a standard. These measures mask the difficult realities of unequal distribution within people’s homes. This ’hidden poverty’ disproportionately impacts women, who often lack financial control. One issue that has been raised regarding measuring income poverty, especially when understanding gender differences, is that poverty is often measured^[[5]](https://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/case/_new/publications/abstract/?index=6931) at the household rather than individual level. Thus, official measures overlook who earns the income and how this is distributed within the household: a household may have an income above the poverty line, but one or more people in it may be living in ‘hidden poverty’ because resources are not shared equally between all members of the household. Research shows that it is women who are more likely to experience ‘hidden poverty’ either due to financial control or because women are more often responsible for managing the budget in low-income families and may put their partner and children first. Also, there may exist a gender imbalance between earnings in couples whereby individual earnings — usually women’s — are not enough alone to avoid poverty. This also means women are more likely^[[6]](https://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/case/_new/publications/abstract/?index=6931) to be financially dependent on their partners. Therefore, conventional measures of poverty may miss these gender inequalities in income within households. ## Subtopic 3: Women and Unpaid Care Work - Because women generally have to endure most responsibilities for unpaid care, they are often subject to more risks of poverty. Women spend more time on unpaid domestic work, caring for children, and meeting their family’s needs, than on securing their own financial security. This battle of prioritie The reason behind higher female poverty rates is ultimately that women are more likely to be carers and generally spend more time than men in unpaid care and housework, with employed women spending about 2.3 hours daily on housework, whereas employed men spend around 1.6 hours. The gender gap is highest^[[7]](https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2021-health?language_content_entity=en) for couples with children. Thus, the gendered assumption of the male breadwinner model of the family in which men mainly undertake paid work and women’s main responsibility is to focus on family care prevails globally. This matters as it impacts women’s financial independence, with implications for access to paid work, how this translates into gender inequality in the labour market, how much women earn and ultimately women’s risk of poverty. Unpaid care and housework are not directly compensated economically, despite often being time-consuming and potentially cost-reducing within the household. For example, preparing meals completely from basic ingredients rather than relying on pre-packaged, ready-to-eat foods or restaurant takeout can take more hands-on time but save money. Similarly, doing domestic work like cleaning or childcare yourself rather than paying for house cleaning or babysitting services requires more unpaid time and effort but avoids those expenses. The undervaluing of care is also reflected^[[8]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8543.2011.00884.x) in how employment as a carer is often low-paid relative to other occupations. In addition, social citizenship rights — in other words, the right to welfare benefits — are often tied to participation in _paid_ work rather than unpaid care work, meaning women are less able to access benefits due to their caring responsibilities. ## Subtopic 4: Gender Inequality in the Labour Market - Outdated assumptions that women should be the ones providing care for their children drive systemic inequalities in the labour market. The labour market often adjusts to this by providing reduced and flexible work options for mothers, leading to lower pay and increased risk of poverty. These dynamic That women are assumed to be carers means that once they have children, they are more likely than men either to withdraw from paid work — at least when their children are young — or to work part-time. Invariably, the majority of men are more likely^[[9]](https://www.oecd.org/els/family/LMF_2_1_Usual_working_hours_gender.pdf) to work long hours (over 40 hours a week), especially when they have young children. In Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Malta and Romania, over 90% of men work 40 hours or more, although fewer than 50% of men work 40 hours or more in Denmark, Belgium, France, Finland and Norway. Part-time work not only translates into lower wages but often means lower levels of employment protection and promotion. At the same time, gender segregation is apparent within the labour market. Vertical segregation means men are more likely to be in higher-paid occupations than women, such as managerial positions. Horizontal segregation means women are more likely to be employed in different sectors than men. These are generally lower paid and are more likely to be linked to assumed ‘female roles’ such as jobs in the service sector including nursing or childcare. It is plausible that employers have preconceived assumptions that women are more likely to be carers and, thus, may put less effort into the job or be less available than men. This discrimination may also influence^[[10]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0001839219832310) hiring practices and career progression for women in paid work. Thus, globally, women are less likely to earn the same level of wages as men and the gender wage gap is apparent^[[11]](https://www.oecd.org/els/LMF_1_5_Gender_pay_gaps_for_full_time_workers.pdf) across the OECD — it is widest in Korea (31.1%), Israel (24.3%), Latvia (22.1%), Japan (19.8%) and Estonia (19.6%), but under 5% in Denmark, Norway, Spain, Columbia, Bulgaria and Belgium. Women also experience a motherhood penalty, with larger gender gaps in earnings for those with children. ## Subtopic 5: Solutions to Unpaid Care and Female Poverty - The assumption that women should be solely in charge of childcare confines them to poverty now and in old age. Pension systems fail to address this, and often work on the very assumption that men are their family’s breadwinner and females their caregiver. Countering dependence on partners requires p #### Compensating Unpaid Care Limited access to paid work increases the likelihood that women will be in poverty. Low earnings make it difficult for women to save and contribute to state and private pensions, meaning they are also more likely than men to be poor in old age. Moreover, women are also more likely to live longer than men, which contributes to a higher risk of poverty in old age. Pension systems have generally been designed around the assumption that men are the primary earners and women are the primary carers. Men’s pension income is, therefore, expected to cover their wives too. This assumes that men will share their pension income equally with their wives, which is not necessarily the case in reality. Also, pension systems do not actually address the income inequalities women face due to caring responsibilities and, thus, perpetuate this inequality. There has been a global move towards more individualised pension systems in recent years with increased emphasis on pension income entitlement linked to individual earnings. In theory, this gives more incentive for women to build up their own individual pensions. However, in practice, these pension systems need to be understood in the context of women’s reduced access to paid work due to caring responsibilities. Therefore, the extent to which women are able to build up their own pensions due to broken work histories, lower wages and lengthy leaves needs to be acknowledged. This has resulted in pension ages being pushed back to allow women to work longer, but also to some consideration of how to compensate for caring responsibilities during working life to enable higher pensions in old age. One potential way to do this is to subsidise a parent to stay at home with children — potentially over 2 or 3 years — and essentially give support to caregivers. However, these kinds of leaves are not generally successful in combating poverty. Because care is undervalued, they usually attract a low flat rate or percentage of the average wage, with weak employment protection, and usually mean mothers with low-middle incomes and low education are out of paid work for long periods. They often lead to limited re-entry into paid work, and those who do return, do so in low-paid part-time work, exacerbating the motherhood penalty and reinforcing gender divisions of labour. Other schemes include allowing time spent caring to count towards pension entitlement. This might be by enabling pension entitlements when becoming a mother or when taking parental leave. It might be by reducing the number of years required to build a pension for those with caring responsibilities or by counting years spent caring in the same way as paid work. However, compensating for time spent caring does not overcome the fact that pensions are linked to earnings. Thus, the main way to tackle this issue is to support those with caring responsibilities to access paid work and earn an independent income. #### Supporting Mothers into Paid Work: New Solutions, New Challenges Countries can reduce the impact of caring by supporting mothers into paid work via a mixture of activation policies, protected leaves and financial incentives for second earners to take up employment through available, affordable and quality childcare. Protected leave that enables a break from work when a child is very young whilst protecting the mother’s job allows for entry and re-entry into paid work regardless of caring responsibilities. However, unlike the care leaves described above, to be successful, these leaves need to be well-paid, with a high wage replacement rate^[[12]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/spol.12716) (the amount paid during the leave to replace the mother’s lost earnings whilst on leave). For example, the replacement rate is 100% of average earnings in Austria, Estonia, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal and Slovenia, but Ireland and the UK only compensate for about a third of the average wage. Leaves also need to be relatively short to ensure that a break from paid work does not mean long periods out of paid work exacerbating the motherhood penalty. Moreover, the leave needs to be followed by quality childcare support that is free and guarantees a full-time childcare place for all pre-schoolers to realistically enable mothers to return to work. Research shows^[[13]](https://www.progressive-policy.net/downloads/files/CPP-report-women-in-the-labour-market-Oct-2021-2.pdf) that women enjoy better living conditions in countries that invest more money in childcare. These countries have more women in paid work and smaller pay gaps between genders. The Nordic countries are leaders in that regard. However, it's not enough to simply have childcare available — it also needs to be affordable. If childcare is too expensive, the financial benefits of women entering the workforce are reduced. This is particularly true for those with a lower level of education, who tend to earn lower wages. Mothers may also be uncertain about the quality of external childcare. This may influence their decision to pursue paid work. Where childcare is expensive and of low quality, informal care arrangements are more common. It most often involves grandparents caring for their grandchildren. To support mothers in taking up paid work, welfare states need to provide childcare guarantees. Such guarantees include the availability of free, full-day care for children of pre-school age, as well as after-school care for school-aged children. However, childcare is not enough in itself to enable mothers to sustain paid work and to reduce gender inequalities in the labour market. Mothers in paid work often experience a ‘double shift’^[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Second_Shift) given the gender division of care within the household leading to _time poverty,_ with little time for leisure relative to men and potentially low well-being. Childcare and leaves aimed solely at mothers, therefore, fail to fully tackle the underlying gender division of labour. This means that women reduce their working hours, drop out of paid work entirely or reduce their fertility to compensate for this double burden. In countries where women are not offered the opportunity to reconcile work and family life, they often opt^[[15]](https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4114800) for lower fertility. Unless gender inequities in care within the household are addressed, the assumption that women are the main carers will remain. This, in turn, not only means women will continue to be less likely to take up paid work, but also less likely to take up well-paid jobs. To fully incorporate women into paid work would require gender equality in caring — supporting fathers to care — as well as supporting mothers to enter paid work. This requires changes in society at a deep structural and cultural level, relating to social norms and behaviours. #### Supporting Fathers in Childcare Countries can support fathers to undertake childcare by offering paid leave from work with the specific purpose of looking after their children. Leaves aimed solely at mothers, especially if they are long, will have limited success in challenging gender role norms. But leaves for fathers need to be designed in such a way that they will not only encourage fathers to care, but to do so to the same extent as mothers. Leaves which do not do this will be less successful at challenging the assumption that mothers are the main carers and, in turn, at supporting mothers into paid work. For example, some countries, such as the UK, have implemented maternity leave that allows a portion of the leave to be shared with fathers, but leaves it up to the family to decide whether the father takes any leave, and if so, how much. Nevertheless, this type of 'transferable leave' is unlikely to be successful in challenging traditional gender roles as it is unlikely that fathers will actually take the leave. This is partly for financial reasons. First, the gender pay gap means fathers are likely to earn more than mothers. It, therefore, becomes more financially advantageous for the mother to take the time off work to care for her children. This is particularly true in cases where the financial benefits attached to the leave do not fully compensate for the loss of earnings. Second, social norms and the persistence of the male ‘breadwinner model’ often discourage fathers from taking extended leave. As a result, these policies, when in place, are still not effective enough to tackle assumed gender roles. Paternity leaves or ‘use it or lose it’ leaves aimed at fathers — whereby fathers are allocated some months or weeks of leave which the family will lose if they do not use it — are more likely to encourage take up. The USA and New Zealand are the only countries that do not offer any individual paternity leave. Others such as Australia, Chile, Hungary, Turkey, Mexico, Malta and Croatia offer only one week or less, and nine others offer two weeks or less. Belgium, France, Iceland, Japan, Korea, Portugal and Slovakia offer individual leaves of 20 weeks or more. Still, not all of these offer 100% of previous earnings for the whole leave, with Japan leading^[[16]](https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF2_1_Parental_leave_systems.pdf) in the number of weeks where previous earnings are fully paid offered to fathers (31.9 weeks) followed by Korea (25.2 weeks), Slovakia (21 weeks) and Luxembourg (19.4 weeks). Nevertheless, these more generous paternity leaves are still unlikely to tackle gender inequalities surrounding care if mothers are allocated much longer leaves than fathers. To bridge the gap, some suggest the introduction of equality in the length of maternal and paternal leave. Therefore, arguably, individual leave rights for mothers and fathers of similar lengths would be a more concrete step to tackle^[[17]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/spol.12716) the gender division of labour in the household. Both leaves for mothers and fathers would need to be well, and equally, compensated financially to reduce gender poverty. This would then encourage fathers and mothers to care on an equal basis and, thus, access paid work on an equal basis. This would, in turn, contribute to reducing poverty in families with children, not only by increasing female financial independence through the support of maternal attachment to paid work, but also by giving fathers the opportunity to provide care. This would also highlight the value of care, and challenge the gender role norms within the home and in paid work. Women would be less likely to lose out financially relative to men as both would be earning and caring equally. Ultimately, gender gaps in poverty (i.e., when women are more likely to be in poverty than men) in working and old age would be reduced. ## Sources and further reading - [Gender equality: The last big poverty challenge](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Hx0WUyJLtI) — International Planned Parenthood Federation, 2014.‍ - [What people miss about the gender wage gap](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=13XU4fMlN3w) — Vox, 2016 - [What is gender equality?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hklSpQl8hZo) — United Nations Population Fund, 2021 - [Why are women paid less than men?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpE8ttCEd-w) — The Economist, 2017 - [One Extra Year?: Why Women?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XgUSnnsDoi8) — The Why, 2016 - [Woman: a journey to empowerment](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ymKoEjMSfg) — Arthus-Bertrand, Y. and Mikova, A. 2019 - [Girl Rising Film Chapters](https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLfB1VNHfl-x1SUNSEhgOXz0F8kUp0R0Mq) — Girl Rising, 2020 - [5 films about fighting for gender justice and fundamental human rights](https://commonslibrary.org/5-films-about-fighting-for-gender-justice-and-fundamental-human-rights/) — Global Fund for Women Fundamental Project, 2020 - [Waterschool](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8GuOI_TyKaU) — Hsu, T. Swarovski Foundation, 2021 - [Equal Half](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KecF3KASw6w) — UN Women Asia and the Pacific, 2015 - [Gender Equality Index](https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index/2023) — European Institute for Gender Equality - [Gender Statistics Database](https://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/dgs) — European Institute for Gender Equality - [Gender equality worldwide - statistics & facts](https://www.statista.com/topics/7625/gender-equality-worldwide/#topicOverview) — Statista - [Gender Inequality Index](https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/thematic-composite-indices/gender-inequality-index#/indicies/GII) — United Nations Development Programme - [Gender statistics](https://ourworldindata.org/search?q=gender) — Our World in Data - [SDG Gender Index](https://www.equalmeasures2030.org/2022-sdg-gender-index/rankings/) — Equal Measures 2030 - [Gender Data Portal](https://genderdata.worldbank.org/) — World Bank - [The feminisation of poverty: why gender matters](https://www.concern.org.uk/news/feminisation-poverty-why-gender-matters) — Bloxham, L. Concern Worldwide, 2021 - [UK women priced out of work by lack of affordable childcare, PwC finds](https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/mar/07/uk-women-work-childcare-pwc-budget) — Elliott, L. The Guardian, 2023 - [Baby bust: Italy faces a ‘demographic winter’](https://www.ft.com/content/44ccfd0c-b2bc-4912-bc90-26c6c95a9ba0) — Kazmon, A. Financial Times, 2023 - [Gender equality now: 7 injustices we need to address to change the world](https://www.concern.net/news/gender-inequalities-we-need-to-address) — Concern Worldwide, 2022 - [Women are bearing the brunt of the cost of living crisis](https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/01/cost-of-living-crisis-women-gender-gap/) — Charlton, E. World Economic Forum, 2023 - [Working for nothing: How unpaid labour shapes women’s professional lives](https://www.euronews.com/business/2023/11/08/working-for-nothing-how-unpaid-labour-shapes-womens-professional-lives) — Duboust, O. Euronews, 2023 - [Time to care: Unpaid and underpaid care work and the global inequality crisis](https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620928/bp-time-to-care-inequality-200120-summ-en.pdf) — Oxfam, 2020 - [Gender Equality and the COVID-19 Pandemic: Labour Market, Family Relationships and Public Policy](https://www.intereconomics.eu/contents/year/2021/number/5/article/gender-equality-and-the-covid-19-pandemic-labour-market-family-relationships-and-public-policy.html) — Profeta, P. Intereconomics, 2021 - [Gender and poverty: a case of entwined inequalities](https://www.socialwatch.org/node/11590) — Social Watch, 2010 - [A Briefer: gender inequality causes poverty](https://banyanglobal.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Gender-Inequality-Causes-Poverty-Briefer.pdf) — US Aid, 2021 - [‘Measly’ paternity rights mean nearly a third of UK fathers take no leave – report](https://www.theguardian.com/money/2023/jun/15/measly-paternity-rights-mean-nearly-third-uk-fathers-take-no-leave-report) — Topping, A. The Guardian, 2023 - [Why women still earn less than men in Europe](https://www.dw.com/en/equal-pay-day-why-europe-is-still-grappling-with-gender-pay-gap/a-63142972) — Ramakrishnan, S. Deutsch Welle, 2023 - [Global Gender Gap Report 2023](https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-gender-gap-report-2023/) — World Economic Forum, 2023 - [Gender and Poverty in Europe](https://www.eapn.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/EAPN-2017-EAPN-Briefing-Gender-and-Poverty-final.pdf) — Malgesini, G. et al. European Anti Poverty Network, 2017 - [Poverty is not gender-neutral](https://sdg-action.org/poverty-is-not-gender-neutral/) — Azcon, G. and Bhatt, A. SDG Action, 2023 - [Women’s rights and gender equality](https://www.amnesty.org.uk/files/2022-01/Womens%20rights%20pack%202021%20-%20Intro.pdf?VersionId=DGlc1RySfBdv6EKaEhYOM68Dt4kRFexP) — Amnesty International, 2022 - [No Poverty](https://developmenteducation.ie/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Concern-3.-No-Poverty-Resource.pdf) — Concern Worldwide, 2018 - [Sustainable Development Goals](https://www.concern.net/schools-and-youth/educational-resources) — Concern Worldwide, 2022 - [Gender Equality](https://developmenteducation.ie/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/SHA-Gender-Equality.pdf) — Development Education, Self Help Africa, 2022 - [From Where I Stand : A Gender Equality Project For the Global Goals](https://worldslargestlesson.globalgoals.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Final-Gender-Equality-Lesson-Plan-1.pdf) — UNICEF, 2020 - [Feminist approaches to climate justice](https://www.oxfam.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Oxfam-Gender-Climate-Toolkit-web-version.pdf) — Oxfam, 2021 - [Sustainable Development Goals in the Classroom](https://dcp.ufl.edu/sbe/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2021/02/UN-SDGs_InTheClassroomAtUF_2021-01-00.pdf) — University of Florida, 2021 - [Global Women's Issues: Women in the World Today, extended version](https://opentextbc.ca/womenintheworld/) — United States Department of State, 2017 - [Women in Poverty: Access to Education](https://equineteurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Women-in-Poverty_-Access-to-Education.pdf) — EQUINET, 2020 - [World Bank Girl’s Education Overview](https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/girlseducation#2) — World Bank, 2023 - [Poverty one pager](https://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/downloads/Ch8_Poverty_info.pdf) — United Nations Statistics Division - [How women will lead us to freedom, justice and peace](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-uR-iqh1x1Q&t) — Sirleaf, E. J. TED, 2020 - [Woman’s Hour Podcast](https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007qlvb/episodes/player) — BBC Radio 4 - [Episode 185: Women Getting Paid](https://www.thebroadexperience.com/listen/2021/12/1/episode-185-women-getting-paid) — The Broad Experience Podcast, 2021 - [Why Women Are Paid Less](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hP8dLUxBfsU) — Explained, 2018 - [Why Gender Equality Is Good for Everyone — Men Included](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7n9IOH0NvyY) — Kimmel, M. TED, 2015 - [These are the best speeches on gender inequality](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q2aDXPNVEMQ) — Reuters, 2020 - [Gender inequality starts in the home](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqF5C0xU-f4) — Msibi, M. TEDx Talks, 2021 - ["A Seat at the Table" Isn't the Solution for Gender Equity](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9EBkS2kE7uk) — Singh, L. TED, 2022 - [Why gender equality is not just about women](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a4WuurpnSbc) — Strachan, C. TEDx Talks, 2019 - [Exclusive with Malala Yousafzai](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vcFbPYNG_yo) — China Global Television Network, 2020 ## About the author: Naomi Finch, University of York Senior Lecturer of Social Policy at theUniversity of York, UK. Her research interests focus on gender equalityspecifically related to work and care, and how welfare states shape, supportand value care. --- # Political Ideologies and their Perspectives on Human Rights URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/political-ideologies-and-their-perspectives-on-human-rights Published: 2024-11-23 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Giorgia Baldi, University of Sussex (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/giorgia-baldi-university-of-sussex) Category: Political System Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) The relationship between political ideology and human rights is complex. Moreover, this relationship can differ according to which ideology an individual adheres. For example, cultural relativists view human rights as culturally constructed and believe they should be applied differently across societies, whereas others believe in universal human rights standards, which apply universally regardless of culture. ## Summary - Different political ideologies like liberalism or socialism prioritize different human rights. - There is an ongoing debate about whether human rights are truly universal or culturally constructed. - Balancing universal principles with different cultural perspectives is a challenge, especially for courts such as the European Court of Human Rights. ## Subtopic 1: Overview: Political Ideologies & Their Perspectives on Human Rights - The relationship between political ideology and human rights is complex. Moreover, this relationship can differ according to which ideology an individual adheres. For example, cultural relativists view human rights as culturally constructed and believe they should be applied differently across socie _The following text is based on an interview_ #### How Do Political Ideologies Affect Human Rights? Political ideology can significantly affect human rights in different ways and its impact is very complex. One political ideology may prioritize a certain right above another. For example, liberal ideology emphasizes the importance of freedom of speech, assembly, and freedom of expression, i.e., it places a lot of emphasis on individual freedom and civil liberties because of liberalism’s focus on individualism . Differently, socialist ideologies prioritize economic rights and rights pertaining to access to health care and education . Moreover, an authoritarian ideology may restrict certain rights in the name of control, stability, and a sense of security. #### What Are Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights Standards and How Do They Intersect? Cultural relativism and human rights standards are two contrasting approaches to the concept of human rights. Cultural relativism is based on the idea that human rights are not absolute or universal. It posits that they are culturally constructed and, therefore, not objective. This means that they are applicable differently in different cultures. Thus, cultural relativism acknowledges the diversity of cultures and traditions around the world and argues that human rights should be understood and applied in ways that are consistent with different cultures and traditions . Contrarily, universal human rights standards are applied to all individuals regardless of their cultural or political context. That is to say that the same rights are afforded to everyone regardless of who or where they are. In doing so, they dismiss the differences between the different communities . These approaches (cultural relativism and universal human rights) are the subject of great debate in academia. On the one hand, proponents of cultural relativism argue that understanding and respecting the local culture is essential to promoting human rights, and that viewing human rights as universal dismisses the differences between communities. By taking a post-colonial approach, many cultural relativists contend that the notion of universal human rights is a Western imposition . On the other hand, universal human rights advocates argue that all humans deserve the same basic rights and that the law must be based upon this . #### The European Court of Human Rights The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) was established in the aftermath of World War II with the aim of promoting and protecting human rights in Europe. The foundation for the ECHR was laid with the adoption of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in 1950. The ECHR was drafted within the Council of Europe, an intergovernmental organization founded in 1949 to promote cooperation and human rights in Europe. The Council of Europe, distinct from the European Union, sought to create a common legal framework for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms across its member states. The ECHR was one of the primary instruments developed for this purpose . The ECHR came into force on September 3, 1953, after being ratified by a sufficient number of member states. The convention set out a range of civil and political rights and established the legal framework for the protection of these rights at the regional level. The ECHR also provided for the establishment of a judicial body to enforce its provisions — the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). The Court was officially inaugurated in 1959 and began its operations in 1960. One significant feature of the ECHR was the ability of individuals to bring cases directly to the Court. This allowed individuals to seek redress for alleged violations of their rights after exhausting domestic remedies . Over the years, the Court evolved, and additional protocols were added to the ECHR to enhance and expand human rights protections. The Court's jurisdiction was gradually extended, and its role in interpreting and developing human rights law in Europe became increasingly significant. Today, the European Court of Human Rights stands as a crucial institution for the protection of human rights in Europe, providing a forum for individuals and states to address alleged violations and contributing to the development of a common European understanding of human rights principles . #### The Margin of Appreciation at the ECHR The ‘margin of appreciation’ is a legal tool used by the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). Initially introduced in the 1960s, this legal doctrine acknowledges that different member states may interpret and apply certain human rights standards differently based on their unique cultural, historical, and social contexts . The margin of appreciation essentially grants a degree of flexibility to individual states in implementing certain human rights obligations, recognizing that there is no one-size-fits-all approach. This concept was particularly crucial during the early years of the ECHR, when the court had to navigate diverse legal traditions and political systems among its member states . Over time, the margin of appreciation has evolved through a dynamic interplay between legal decisions and changing societal norms. While initially intended to accommodate diversity, the concept has been subject to ongoing debate and refinement. Critics argue that it could potentially be used to justify human rights violations, while proponents maintain that it allows for a nuanced understanding of cultural differences without compromising fundamental rights . The evolution of the margin of appreciation reflects the ongoing challenge of balancing universal human rights principles with the need to respect the diversity of legal systems and cultural contexts within Europe. As human rights jurisprudence continues to develop, the concept remains a significant aspect of legal discourse . An example of this is the case of Muslims women’s headscarf decided at the ECHR. In these cases, the Court has allowed member states to decide whether the manifestation of religious symbols, e.g., the wearing of veils, was incompatible with the notion of public order enshrined in article 9.2 of the ECHR. While article 9 (1) protects “freedom of thought, conscience, and religion”, Article 9 (2) limits this right in the name of public safety, public order, etc. In the case of the veil, European countries have constructed the veil as an element able to endanger public order and so in need of regulation, although there was no proof of this danger. In those cases, the ECHR has widened the margin of appreciation, leaving member states to decide which religious symbols could endanger the public order of European societies . Scholars have widely criticized those decisions, contending that the ECHR’s decisions regarding christian symbols contrast with those that concern Islamic symbols (as in the comparison between Dahlab v Switzerland^[[1]](https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-22643%22]}) and Lautsi v Italy^[[2]](https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22002-592%22]}) . If you compare the ECHR’s decisions related to the Muslim veil with those related to Christian religious symbols (such as in the case of , you can see how they are treated differently. This is an example of how the application of the margin of appreciation could be applied differently. Indeed, it is important to note that in cases related to the wearing of the Muslim veil, the ECHR defined the headscarf as oppressive towards women, without considering whether Muslims consider the practice  oppressive. In doing so, it could be argued that they are solely applying a Western/liberal understanding of women’s freedom. Another example is that of abortion in Ireland. Before the recent change in the law in this regard, there were cases decided by the European Court of Human Rights concerning Irish women's right to abortion. Here, the European Court of Human Rights left a great margin of appreciation, refusing to interfere with the law in Ireland. The Court took into consideration the fact that Ireland is a Catholic country and has a specific moral tradition regarding the issue of abortion^[[3]](https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-102332%22]}) . Thus, it widened the margin of appreciation, allowing Ireland to forbid abortion. Hence, the right to have an abortion was not obtained through the ECHR, but by a national referendum in Ireland in 2018. Critics argue that the ECHR has used the margin of appreciation inconsistently, and for this reason, it is seen by some as a political tool, which the court can choose to apply or not . Often, the decisions made by the European Court of Human Rights have changed along with societal and political changes in Europe. For instance, in cases related to the manifestation of religious symbols (such as cases related to the wearing of the muslim veil and the building of minarets), the ECHR has widened the margin of appreciation, leaving member states considerable discretion. On the contrary, it has traditionally restricted the margin of appreciation in relation to LGBTQ+ rights. In fact, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has witnessed a notable development in LGBTQ rights, progressively recognizing and affirming the importance of protecting the rights of individuals regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity. In landmark cases such as E.B. v. France^[[4]](https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{%22itemid%22:[%22002-2311%22]}) and Schalk and Kopf v. Austria^[[5]](https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-99605%22]}) ., the ECHR played a pivotal role in advancing LGBTQ rights by interpreting the European Convention on Human Rights in a manner that reinforces the principles of non-discrimination and respect for private and family life. ## Subtopic 2: Liberalism - Classical liberalism is rooted in individual rights and limited government intervention. Over time, it has evolved to encompass political and economic dimensions. While political liberalism focuses on individual rights and democratic governance, economic liberalism, as exemplified by Adam Smith, emp _The following text is based on an interview_ #### What Is Liberalism? Classical liberalism is a political and philosophical ideology that emphasizes individual rights and limited government intervention in economic affairs. In general, it places a great emphasis on the protection of civil liberties, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and the rule of law. Moreover, liberalism usually supports a democratic system and a free-market economy. The majority of scholars place the origins of liberalism with John Locke and Thomas Hobbes — two 17th century British philosophers — who called for a different approach to the state . Liberalism has also been important in relation to individual women’s rights: an example is the work of John Stewart Mill, an important British liberal thinker. He was one of the first philosophers in Europe to speak about women’s freedom and women’s rights, which very much influenced the suffragette movement and what followed. #### How Has Liberalism Adapted Over Time? Liberalism has changed over time based on different cultural and historical contexts  in different countries. Political liberalism and economic liberalism, while sharing a common historical lineage, diverge in their focus and objectives. Political liberalism centers on principles of individual rights, democratic governance, and the rule of law, as exemplified by philosophers like John Locke. In contrast, economic liberalism, as articulated by figures such as Adam Smith, emphasizes free-market principles, limited government intervention, and the belief in the efficiency of market mechanisms to promote economic prosperity. While political liberalism addresses issues of governance and civil liberties, economic liberalism pertains more specifically to economic policies and the role of the state in the market economy . Initially, liberalism focused mostly on economic exchange and on individual rights. Hereafter, liberalism underwent a transformative evolution into capitalism, which represents a distinct shift in its understanding of social relationships and market dynamics. This transition extended beyond the traditional exchange of goods between individuals. Capitalism introduced a more intricate framework wherein the market transcended its concrete manifestations, assuming the characteristics of an abstract entity. In the context of this evolution, Karl Marx's conceptualization of commodities and commodification is particularly illuminating. Marx argued that in a capitalist system, commodities are not simply physical goods but have a dual nature: they have use-values and exchange-values. The use-value pertains to the inherent utility or functionality of a commodity, for example, a fishing rod, which can be used to catch fish. While the exchange-value reflects its worth in terms of other commodities, for example, gold, which can be exchanged for different quantities of various things. This encapsulates the abstract nature of value within the market . Furthermore, Marx contended that commodification extends beyond the physical goods themselves to include labor power. In a capitalist society, labor becomes a commodity that is subjected to market forces and alienated from the workers who produce it. This commodification process, according to Marx, contributes to the dehumanization of social relationships, where individuals and their labor are reduced to commodities to be bought and sold in the abstract market. Thus, the transition from liberalism to capitalism not only redefined economic transactions, but also paved the way for Marx's critique of the commodification inherent in capitalist systems, shedding light on the profound socio-economic changes that accompanied this evolution. Capitalism then evolved into what we call today neoliberalism in the mid-20th century; although, again, this is understood and implemented differently in different socio-political contexts. Neoliberalism is an economic and political philosophy that is associated with a belief in free-market capitalism, limited government intervention in the economy, and an emphasis on individual entrepreneurship and competition. Like any complex ideology, neoliberalism has both positive and negative aspects, and span class="span">perspectives on its impact varySource:Moosa, I. Financialisation, Neoliberalism and Globalisation. Edward Elgar, 2023.. Neoliberal policies are often credited with fostering economic growth by promoting market efficiency, innovation, and competition. Proponents argue that these factors contribute to overall prosperity and that minimal government intervention allows markets to allocate resources more efficiently. Neoliberalism places a strong emphasis on individual freedoms, including economic freedom. Advocates argue that reducing government interference allows individuals to make choices in the marketplace, promoting personal and economic liberty . On the other hand, one of the major criticisms of neoliberalism is its association with growing income inequality. Critics argue that policies favoring the wealthy and corporations can lead to a concentration of wealth in the hands of a few. They contend that neoliberal policies may neglect social issues and public welfare, leading to insufficient investment in education, healthcare, and social safety nets, and disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations. Neoliberalism assumes that markets will self-regulate, but critics argue that this can lead to market failures, such as financial crises and environmental degradation, due to the lack of regulatory oversight. Indeed, some critics assert that neoliberal policies may undermine democratic governance by concentrating economic power in the hands of a few powerful corporations and limiting the ability of governments to regulate in the public interest. The emphasis on privatization and reducing the role of the state may result in the erosion of public services, with critics arguing that this can lead to the prioritization of profit over the public good . Neoliberalism's emphasis on free-market principles and limited government intervention has also sparked debates regarding its impact on human rights, with critics contending that economic policies associated with neoliberalism can potentially undermine social equality and essential human rights. Neoliberalism's impact on human rights is exemplified by policies such as labor deregulation, austerity measures, the privatization of essential services, income inequality, and the potential infringement on indigenous rights, sparking debates over the balance between economic principles and the safeguarding of fundamental human rights . ## Subtopic 3: Socialism - Socialism places a focus on economic equality and social justice, emphasizing healthcare, education, and housing. Originating alongside communism in the 19th century, socialism sought a fair economic and legal system. Socialists focus on human rights, advocating for wealth distribution, fair wages, _The following text is based on an interview_ #### What is Socialism? Socialism is a political ideology that seeks to promote economic equality and social justice. In its approach to human rights, its focus is on systems of inequalities. Socialism also places an emphasis on healthcare, education, and housing . Socialism and communism grew together in Europe. The year 1848 witnessed the first revolutions against the monarchy in Italy, France, and Germany: those revolutions were led by socialist ideals. While socialism advocated for a more just economic and legal system, communists (through Karl Marx’s Manifesto) were critical of socialists, i.e., while socialists were acting within the system of the state, communists wanted to change the state system of power altogether . For Marx, the law was a tool of the bourgeois to maintain power and the oppression of the proletariat. He believed that once the system of oppression is destroyed, the law would become redundant . Socialists emphasize social justice as an essential component of human rights. For example, socialists advocate for the equitable distribution of wealth, opportunities, resources, fair wages, and helping the most vulnerable groups in the community . #### Socialism and Human Rights The intricate relationship between socialism and human rights is contingent on the nuanced interpretation and application of socialist principles, which span a spectrum from democratic socialism to more authoritarian variants . In favor of socialism and human rights, there exists a narrative emphasizing positive aspects: economic equality, for instance, takes center stage, as socialism often champions the reduction of economic inequality through the advocacy of wealth and resource redistribution. Proponents argue that this contributes significantly to the realization of economic and social rights. They contend that initiatives such as universal healthcare, education, and social security fortify human rights fulfillment, particularly in the realms of social and economic well-being. Workers' rights are spotlighted, aligning with socialist ideologies that underscore the importance of fair wages, safe working conditions, and collective bargaining. This emphasis resonates with the broader principles of economic and social justice . On the contrary, critiques against socialism and its impact on human rights also emerge, such as concerns about individual liberties and centralized state control in authoritarian regimes. Challenges related to limited political pluralism are highlighted, as some socialist regimes face criticism for restricting political diversity and suppressing opposition. Such actions can undermine political rights and freedoms. However, those challenges are associated with socialist authoritarian regimes. It is crucial to acknowledge the diversity within socialism, ranging from democratic and decentralized forms to more centralized and authoritarian iterations. The impact on human rights is inherently tied to how socialist principles are implemented and balanced against considerations such as individual freedoms and political pluralism. In practice, the relationship between socialism and human rights unfolds within the specific policies and practices of the governing body in question . Socialists don't criticize individual rights, but they state that individual rights alone are not enough. They also place more importance on cultural relativism than liberals. However, at times, liberal countries like the UK are sometimes less restrictive than more socialist countries like France and Germany in relation to freedom of religion, for example. #### The Development of Socialism Over Time There have been two developments in socialism over time: the academic development and the political development, and both have been very different. On the academic level, there are a lot of new studies based on socialist ideas on how to better the system. These may consider the environment and new forms of economy, for example . On the political level, before, socialist ideas were at the forefront of certain political dialogues; however, today, neoliberalism has become a prominent ideology, even in more socialist political systems, creating different hybrids. Social neoliberalism represents a hybrid approach that combines market-oriented economic policies with a recognition of the need for social safety nets, and its political development involves a pragmatic blending of neoliberal principles with a commitment to addressing social issues, aiming to strike a balance between economic efficiency and social welfare. ## Subtopic 4: Anarchism - Anarchism advocates for the elimination of hierarchical structures, including the state, envisioning a society based on voluntary cooperation and individual freedom. In terms of human rights, it focuses on individual autonomy, equality, and the rejection of oppressive systems. Murray Bookchin is a n _The following text is based on an interview_ #### What is Anarchism? Anarchism is a political ideology that advocates for the abolition of hierarchical structures of power, including the state. It envisions a society based on voluntary cooperation, mutual aid, and individual freedom. Therefore, in the context of human rights, anarchism emphasizes the importance of individual autonomy, equality, and the elimination of what is considered a system of oppression. Behind anarchist ideas is the destruction of the nation state. Anarchists believe that many problems arise from this form of governance and organization, especially problems experienced by minorities. Anarchists also advocate for the creation of a system in which democracy is more direct . Murray Bookchin is a famous proponent of this idea. He advocated for a society based on direct democracy. For example, in a city, instead of having a mayor, each area is directly governed by groups of people that represent all parts of the society, e.g., women, men, different religions, etc. In this system, smaller places are linked to bigger places via a direct administration. His ideas inspired the revolution in Rojava, which is one of the few real-world examples we have of an anarchist system in practice, although it is still deeply under-researched. #### Anarchism and Human Rights Anarchism does not reject human rights and focuses on individual rights in particular. For Chomsky, another renowned scholar, anarchism aligns with the concept of human rights in relation to providing individual autonomy, self-determination, and the rejection of the oppressive systems of power; however, he criticizes the concentration of power in the hands of human rights institutions and/or governments. Thus, he is essentially challenging the traditional notion of human rights insofar as they have to be enforced and protected by the state. Chomsky argues that a participatory society can uphold and promote human rights more effectively than state institutions. Anarchists argue that there is too much of a legalist approach to human rights and that freedom, justice and equality can be achieved through direct participation in democracy rather than through legal institutions. Thus, they criticize the institutional system of human rights . #### How Has Anarchism Developed Over Time? The intellectual origins of anarchism can be traced to key figures who laid the groundwork for this political philosophy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) is often regarded as the first self-proclaimed anarchist. Proudhon's work^[[6]](https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/pierre-joseph-proudhon-what-is-property-an-inquiry-into-the-principle-of-right-and-of-governmen) criticized private property and envisioned a society based on voluntary cooperation and mutualism or working together. Another important thinker is Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876) who emphasized the abolition of both the state and capitalism in favor of a decentralized, self-governing society. Furthermore, Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921) emphasized the importance of cooperation and mutual aid in social evolution. He advocated for anarcho-communism, envisioning a society based on communal ownership and distribution of resources . Emma Goldman (1869–1940) is another central figure. She was an influential anarchist and feminist thinker. Goldman's writings and speeches advocated for a wide range of social issues, including labor rights, free love, and opposition to war. Her work, which includes Anarchism and Other Essays (1910) , contributed significantly to the development of anarchism in the United States. These key figures, among others, played pivotal roles in shaping the intellectual foundations of anarchism, influencing diverse strands within the broader anarchist tradition, including mutualism, collectivism, anarcho-communism, and individualist anarchism. On a political level, anarchism has never adapted as there is no clear example of a system that is clearly based on anarchist ideas (Rojava being a possible exception). On an academic and theoretical level, in the past, anarchist theory centered on the destruction of the state. Now, while this is still prevalent, there is more theory based on different social structures. While traditional anarchist ideologies centered on envisioning human flourishing in the absence of a centralized state, contemporary discourse reflects a shift towards the exploration and development of representative social structures that extend beyond the confines of the state. This evolution suggests a nuanced engagement with governance, emphasizing the importance of accountable and participatory frameworks, which address societal needs, while acknowledging the complexities of modern interconnected communities . ## Subtopic 5: The Far Right - Far-right political ideologies are rooted in 20th-century fascism and nationalism and have diverse perspectives on human rights. Traditional far-right support for human rights often extends to individual and specific family rights but conflicts with LGBTQ+ rights and women's right to abortion. Cultu _The following text is based on an interview_ #### What Is The Far Right? The far-right political ideology originates from fascism and the nationalist ideologies at the beginning of the 20th century in Europe. The birth of human rights as we know them today came as a direct response to the horrors of the Second World War, much of which was perpetrated in the name of the far-right ideology of fascism. In contrast to liberals who advocate for a limited state intervention, the far right present themselves as nationalist, and so the state is central to all aspects of life . #### The Far Right and Human Rights As there are different kinds of far-right parties, there is a range of opinions from the far right about human rights. For example, since its creation in 2001, the far-right nationalist party in Poland — Prawo i Sprawiedliwość or Law and Justice — strongly rejects some human rights, such as some women's rights, LGTBQ+ rights, and so on^[[7]](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-49904849) . Differently, the current far-right movement in Italy uses the discourse on human rights in a different way. In relation to immigration, instead of campaigning to address the human rights of immigrants arriving by sea, they advocate for protecting the rights of the immigrants through fighting the people who traffic them, precluding a real action in favor of immigrants’ human rights in the country^[[8]](https://www.internazionale.it/ultime-notizie/2023/09/21/giorgia-meloni-nazioni-unite-traffico) . Thus, the discourse of human rights has been used (and abused) to place the blame on the traffickers rather than processing the immigrants as they arrive as required by European and Human Rights law. There are certain human rights that the far right traditionally supports, for example, individual rights and rights related to specific ideas of the family. Conversely, there are rights that they traditionally support less, such as LGTBQ+ rights. There has also always been a conflict between the far right and women’s right to abortion. Certainly, within the far-right perspective, resistance to certain human rights is often framed as a defense of established values, expressing concerns about the perceived erosion of tradition, conflicts between rights, the preservation of cultural identity, and fears of broader social changes. Rather than outright rejection, this stance is rooted in a perceived need to protect existing norms and values amidst societal shifts . The far-right ideology doesn't respect cultural relativism because these movements are very nationalistic. For them, it is the responsibility of the minority to change in order to become more like the majority. This process is commonly known as cultural assimilation . #### The Far Right Over Time The far right has undergone notable transformations over time, adapting to changing political landscapes and societal dynamics. Historically, movements associated with the far right have emerged in response to economic uncertainties, cultural shifts, and perceived threats to traditional values. From early nationalist movements in the 19th century to the rise of populist and anti-immigrant sentiments in recent decades, the far right has demonstrated resilience and flexibility in its ideologies . In the aftermath of World War II, the far right faced a period of marginalization due to the stigma associated with fascist ideologies. However, it experienced a resurgence in the latter part of the 20th century, marked by the emergence of populist leaders, anti-globalization sentiments, and a focus on immigration issues. The far right has capitalized on economic anxieties and identity politics, often presenting itself as a voice against perceived elite establishments. The 21st century has witnessed the far right leveraging digital platforms to disseminate its ideologies and connect with like-minded individuals globally. Movements characterized by nationalism, anti-globalism, and anti-immigrant sentiments have gained traction in various parts of the world. These movements often incorporate fears of cultural change and economic instability, contributing to their appeal among certain demographics. This appeal is linked to a need for the protection of national cultural identity and the fear of cultural/ethnic changes and economic threats in the context of profound economic/political and social crises . It's essential to note the diversity within the far-right spectrum. It ranges from populist movements with electoral success to more extremist and fringe groups. The far right's ideologies can vary, encompassing nationalism, nativism (prioritizing ‘native-born’ residents), authoritarianism, and anti-globalization sentiments. The movement's adaptability and ability to respond to social and economic anxieties underscore its continued relevance in contemporary political landscapes. ## Sources and further reading - [World Leaders are Failing Human Rights. Here's Why](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Dp8t-0HR-o) — The New York Times, 2019 - [Liberal Hypocrisy is Fueling American Inequality. Here’s How](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hNDgcjVGHIw) — The New York Times, 2021 - [What are the universal human rights?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDgIVseTkuE) — TED-Ed, 2015 - [John Stuart Mill's big idea: Harsh critics make good thinkers.](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHgVGgDqUvE) — Big Think, 2019 - [David Graeber: Why Rojava Matters](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovfw6BJ3OLM) — Novara Media, 2019 - [Accidental Anarchist - What is the Rojava Revolution?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yyqG-71zOi0) — Films For Action, 2019 - [Human Rights Index 2022](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/human-rights-index-vdem) — Our World in Data - [Countries with accredited independent national human rights institutions](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/countries-with-independent-national-human-rights-institution) — Our World in Data, 2021 - [Distribution of human rights index](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/distribution-human-rights-index-vdem) — Our World in Data, 2022 - [Leading countries for human rights and rule of law as of 2022](https://www.statista.com/statistics/1256279/lowest-human-rights-and-rule-of-law-index-by-country/) — Statista - [Conservatives, Liberals, and Human Rights](https://www.hoover.org/research/conservatives-liberals-and-human-rights) — Lagon, M. P. and Schulz, W. F. Hoover Institution, 2012 - [‘Rebalancing’ human rights? They don’t belong to the left or the right](https://theconversation.com/rebalancing-human-rights-they-dont-belong-to-the-left-or-the-right-25019) — Ivison, D. The Conversation, 2014 - [Human rights and the paradoxes of liberalism](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/human-rights-and-paradoxes-of-liberalism/) — Douzinas, C. openDemocracy, 2014 - [The Tragedy of Human Rights: Liberalism and the Loss of Belonging](https://www.resetdoc.org/story/tragedy-human-rights-liberalism-loss-belonging/) — Seligman, A. B. and Montgomery, D. W. Association Reset-Dialogues on Civilizations, 2020 - [Tailoring the message: How the political left and right think differently about human rights](https://www.openglobalrights.org/Tailorin-%20the-message-How-the-political-left-and-right-think-differently-about-human-rights/) — Braun, J. and Arves, S. Open Global Rights, 2017 - [Is the concept of human rights non-ideological?](https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/8/13/is-the-concept-of-human-rights-non-ideological) — Moslih, H. Al Jazeera, 2014 - [Who Defends Human Rights Better, Liberals or Conservatives?](https://www.aei.org/foreign-and-defense-policy/who-defends-human-rights-better-liberals-or-conservatives/) — Rubin, M. American Enterprise Institute, 2016 - [What is a ‘classical liberal’ approach to human rights?](https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-classical-liberal-approach-to-human-rights-24452) — Renshaw, C. The Conversation, 2014 - [What Putin’s supposed “death” of liberalism means for human rights](https://www.openglobalrights.org/what-putins-supposed-death-of-liberalism-means-for-human-rights/) — Casla, K. Open Global Rights, 2019 - [Democratic Socialism Can Make Liberal Rights Real](https://jacobin.com/2023/08/socialism-law-rights-legal-theory) — McManus, M. Jacobin, 2023 - [Building Resilience: Political Ideologies](https://www.teachingcitizenship.org.uk/resource/building-resilience-political-ideologies/) — Association for Citizenship Teaching - [Lesson Plan: Political Polarization](https://www.c-span.org/classroom/document/?7251) — C-SPAN Classroom, 2017 - [Human Rights in Secondary School resource pack](https://www.amnesty.org.uk/resources/teaching-pack-everyone-everywhere-human-rights-secondary-school) — Amnesty International UK, 2020 - [The European Convention on Human Rights in practice - Teaching resources](https://edoc.coe.int/en/educational-tools/10615-the-european-convention-on-human-rights-in-practice-teaching-resources.html) — Council of Europe, 2021 - [Michael Ignatieff on liberalism, ordinary virtues and the language of human rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=krI5z2oznHo) — Geneva Graduate Institute, 2020 - [How Socialism got Repackaged into Human Rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ZcWWAK9PiU) — Scruton, R. Institute of Public Affairs, 2019 - [Human Rights as the socialism of the 21st century](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_wJ3iYSRIRI) — Forbath, W. University of Oregon, 2012 - [Rise of the far right: Is Europe still a champion of human rights?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVCqSK0wfeY) — TRT World, 2022 - [Protecting Human Rights in an Era of Rising Nationalism](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcZl7ewM6gM) — Bloomberg Live, 2019 - [Rule of Law: Chinese Nationalism and Human Rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxkS51NwRSE) — The Institute for Global Leadership, 2021 - [Populism and Human Rights: Lessons Learned?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iKk11-Wwni0) — Harvard Law School, 2018 - [Populism poses threat to human rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xW1TVzlVWGw) — Roth, K. Deutsche Welle News, 2017 - [The Problem with Human Rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LyqG1TaGzgQ) — Tatchell, P. The Institute of Art and Ideas, 2019 - [Human Rights in the 21st Century.](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_AS34drNiOo) — Chomsky, N. London School of Economics, 2009 ## About the author: Giorgia Baldi, University of Sussex Dr. Giorgia Baldi is a Lecturer in Law at the University of Sussex, UK, since 2017. Between 2013 and 2017, she served as an Associate Lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London, School of Law, where she taught a diverse range of law-related modules. Prior to her academic career, Dr. Baldi dedicated several years to the field of International Cooperation and Development, holding leadership positions in Women's Rights programs in the Middle East from 2004 to 2011. In recent years, she has also contributed as a consultant to various international organizations, addressing human rights-related issues. Dr. Baldi earned her undergraduate and postgraduate degrees from the University of Bologna (Italy) and completed her doctoral studies at Birkbeck, University of London, School of Law, obtaining her PhD in 2017. She actively participates in scholarly communities and is a member of the Socio-Legal Study Association, the Law and Society Association (LSA), the Law and Religion Scholars Network (LARN), the Association for Middle East Women’s Studies, the International Association for the Study of Religion and Gender, and the British Association for Islamic Studies. In addition, Dr. Baldi is deeply engaged in research and teaching activities. Her research focuses on critical areas such as Human Rights and Women's Rights, Gender and Religion, and Middle Eastern studies. In her teaching role, she imparts knowledge in courses such as Law, Religion, and Human Rights, Gender Equality, and an Introduction to Law, Politics, and Sociology. --- # Challenges to Combating Climate Change at the Individual, Regional and Global Level URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/climate-change-challenges-to-combating-climate-change-at-the-individual-regional-and-global-level Published: 2024-11-19 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Azin Zarei, United Nations University (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/azin-zarei-united-nations-university) Category: Living Conditions Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Climate change entails lasting shifts in Earth's climate patterns, including temperature, precipitation, wind, and other phenomena. This stems from both natural factors and human activities. The observed alterations in the climate system arise from surplus heat, a result of greenhouse gases added to the atmosphere. Most of these gases result from human actions, for example, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, agriculture, and urbanization. ## Summary - Human-caused climate change involves long-term shifts in the Earth’s climate patterns. - There are various individual-level actions for reducing one’s carbon footprint. - To effectively address climate change, collaborative efforts are required from the public and private sectors. - There are many challenges, including the economic complexities of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, government’s prioritizing their own interests, and the trade-off between immediate and eventual benefits. - The severe consequences of climate change will be felt across the globe. ## Subtopic 1: Challenges to Combating Climate Change at the Individual and Collective Levels - Climate change entails lasting shifts in Earth's climate patterns, including temperature, precipitation, wind, and other phenomena. This stems from both natural factors and human activities. The observed alterations in the climate system arise from surplus heat, a result of greenhouse gases added to Climate change refers^[[1]](https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change) to the significant and long-term alterations in the Earth’s climate patterns, particularly those related to temperature, precipitation, wind, and other weather phenomena. These changes can result from both natural factors and human activities. The alterations we observe in the climate system arise from the surplus heat introduced into it. This heat results from the presence of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere. Most of these extra greenhouse gases are a direct result of human actions, including the burning of fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas), deforestation, agricultural practices, and changes in land use. These activities increase^[[2]](https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/overview) the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which act as ‘heat-trapping’ agents. Put simply, the burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere. These gases act like a thermal blanket around the planet, trapping heat from the sun and causing a gradual increase in global temperatures. This phenomenon is often referred to as the ‘greenhouse effect’. It is important to understand that, while the terms ‘climate change’ and ‘global warming’ are frequently interchanged, ‘global warming’ refers^[[3]](https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-warming-101) to the recent increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface, and it is just a single facet of the broader phenomenon known as ‘climate change’. While many solely associate climate change with higher temperatures, this is just the tip of the iceberg. Climate change involves a complex web of effects that extend beyond temperature shifts. Today, the outcomes of climate change include intense droughts, water shortages, devastating fires, rising sea levels, destructive floods, the melting of polar ice, powerful storms, and a decline in biodiversity, among other things. ## Subtopic 2: Individual-Level Challenges to Combating Climate Change - As many individuals lack information about their daily environmental impact, scientists have attempted to provide additional evidence. In addition, economists advocate for market-driven solutions like carbon markets, but their immaturity in many countries has hampered their impact. Tackling climate Given that many individuals lack an understanding of how their daily actions influence the planet, scientists have strived to provide additional evidence. Meanwhile, economists believed in the viability of a market-driven solution that involved establishing carbon markets to assign value to the costs and advantages of carbon emissions. However, carbon markets remain in their infancy across the majority of countries, which greatly curtails their potential impact. After all, if individuals lack a clear comprehension of carbon trading, they are unlikely to engage in such transactions. Addressing climate change involves a shift in various complex systems due to their intricate interconnections and interdependencies. This complexity often gives rise to what are known as ‘collective action traps’. Collaborative efforts prove challenging as humans possess varying values, goals, and circumstances. This results in a scenario where each party expects the others to initiate action, potentially leading to a standstill if collective cooperation is lacking. Similar to a network of intricately linked individuals, a single vulnerability can jeopardize the entire network. Nevertheless, communities often demonstrate heightened cohesion when confronting the repercussions of climate change. For instance, regions grappling with natural issues like forest fires, floods, and others frequently discover a shared impetus to cooperate. This grassroots (bottom-up) strategy proves more effective, given that those directly affected by climate-related hazards share a collective fate, driving them to collaborate in addressing these challenges collectively. Conversely, governments generally adhere to top-down bureaucratic structures, causing their willingness to collaborate to wane as they prioritize outcomes that align with their specific interests. This lack of collaborative incentive can obstruct unified action, as each entity strives for incremental gains instead of pursuing comprehensive solutions^[[4]](https://www.thestatesman.com/opinion/why-it-is-so-difficult-to-tackle-climate-change-1503153758.html) Indeed, combating climate change at the individual level comes with distinct challenges. Addressing climate change presents a trade-off between immediate and eventual advantages, a challenging choice for individuals. Opting to overlook climate concerns in the short term, when it is indeed an option, offers benefits to both individuals and organizations. For example, individuals are not required to alter their lifestyles when they disregard the impact their carbon footprint exerts on the global environment. In addition to the above, climate change is a nonlinear issue, and it took a considerable duration before any discernible indications of climate change became apparent to the general population. Many consequences of climate change remain distant for the majority of individuals. Weather-related catastrophes that likely stem from climate change, such as wildfires, typically occur far from where most people reside. Consequently, the majority of individuals are not compelled to confront the direct implications of climate change. They instead view it as an abstract notion that lacks the capacity to stimulate people to take action with the same level of urgency that concrete events do. The future inherently carries more uncertainty than the present, serving as a key reason as to why individuals tend to place significantly greater value on the current moment^[[5]](https://hbr.org/2018/10/why-people-arent-motivated-to-address-climate-change) The consensus among the scientific community is that the current most impactful actions^[[6]](https://phys.org/news/2017-07-effective-individual-tackle-climate-discussed.html) for significantly reducing an individual's carbon footprint are adopting a plant-based diet, refraining from air travel, living without a car, and opting for smaller family sizes. ## Subtopic 3: Regional-Level Challenges to Combating Climate Change - Effectively addressing climate change requires collaborative efforts from the public and private sectors to develop and distribute innovative environmentally friendly technologies (EFTs). However, the challenges include inadequate information on the long-term benefits of renewable energy sources, po Addressing climate change effectively demands collaborative initiatives from both the public and private sectors to create and distribute innovative environmentally friendly technologies (EFTs) worldwide, while also customizing them to meet local requirements. However, various market failures and specific uncertainties pose obstacles to the optimal dissemination of green technologies, emphasizing the need for supplementary incentives . These challenges encompass insufficient information and awareness regarding the long-term benefits of renewable energy sources, potentially resulting in market failures and impeding widespread adoption. Economists identify three primary obstacles in the battle against climate change: the denial of its existence, the economic intricacies of curbing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the regressive attributes of mitigation policies. Climate change disregards national boundaries: greenhouse gases (GHGs) released from anywhere will eventually impact everyone. Given the present status of multilateral collaboration, envisioning a truly global undertaking for the collective welfare poses a substantial challenge. On the other hand, policies geared towards curbing GHG emissions often have a greater impact on poorer communities, both globally and within nations. According to certain experts, a uniform global carbon emissions tax could be the most effective solution to address the climate challenge, primarily from an environmental standpoint. Nonetheless, if such a tax were implemented, average household expenses for electricity and gasoline could be expected to rise in the coming decade. Consequently, managing the redistribution of the final costs, or what are known as the ‘distributional effects’, would pose challenges, even within affluent nations^[[7]](https://www.afr.com/policy/energy-and-climate/the-trio-of-obstacles-on-climate-change-20200214-p540rm) . To mitigate climate change, some experts believe that a carbon tax should be applied to goods typically characterized as necessities — transport fuel, food, heating, and electricity. Thus, it is thought that carbon taxation will likely affect those with lower incomes to a greater extent in high-income countries, and this impact will increase with greater income inequality (Andersson and Atkinson, 2020). Moreover, it is predicted that the long-awaited advancement in developing and emerging economies would be accompanied by substantial rises in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions^[[8]](https://www.afr.com/policy/energy-and-climate/the-trio-of-obstacles-on-climate-change-20200214-p540rm) . ## Subtopic 4: Global Challenges to Combating Climate Change - Climate change has emerged as the defining crisis of our time, unfolding more rapidly than anticipated. Secretary-General António Guterres stressed in September 2023 that the climate emergency is a race we are losing but can win. The severity implies no part of the world will escape consequences — r Climate change stands as the defining crisis of our era and it is unfolding more rapidly than anticipated. As Secretary-General António Guterres emphasized in September 2023: “the climate emergency is a race we are losing, but it is a race we can win.” The gravity of the situation indicates that no part of the world will remain untouched by the severe consequences of climate change. Escalating temperatures drive environmental deterioration, natural disasters, extreme weather events, food and water insecurities, economic upheaval, conflicts, and terrorism. Sea levels are rising, the Arctic is thawing, coral reefs are perishing, oceans are acidifying, and forests are ablaze.Thus, many believe that maintaining the status quo is insufficient. As the incalculable costs of climate change escalate to irreversible levels, the only way forward is through decisive collective action UN75 2020 and beyond^[[9]](https://www.un.org/en/un75/climate-crisis-race-we-can-win) . The ethical dimensions of the climate challenge are closely intertwined with its spatial and temporal dimensions. This connection arises from the fact that the poorest people on Earth, despite contributing minimally to global emissions, are likely to experience the most severe impacts. Additionally, ethical questions stem from the long-term commitment to future warming and climate change effects that will be borne by subsequent generations. Fundamentally, the cumulative impact of past and future greenhouse gas emissions significantly influences a substantial portion of the continually growing global population. Consequently, it is widely accepted that humanity bears a moral duty to confront the climate challenge. Most experts agree that addressing this challenge requires a dual approach comprising successful negotiations for a binding and effective international climate agreement and grassroots initiatives originating from individuals or communities . One distinctive aspect of climate change, setting it apart from previous environmental challenges, is its nature as a global pollutant as opposed to a local one^[[10]](https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/5-greatest-challenges-to-fighting-climate-change) . This characteristic makes the management and regulation of CO2 significantly more complex. On the other side, the consequences of many climate change pollutants are projected to manifest in the future. This implies that a significant segment of the population may not directly encounter the firsthand effects of climate change. Instead, these effects are often presented through hypothetical scenarios. As a result, policymakers lack strong incentives to take immediate action to address these challenges. Developing and low-income countries play a substantial role in generating pollution, primarily because environmental concerns are not their primary focus. On the other hand, it is crucial to recognize that climate change is not an isolated challenge; rather, it is a cross-cutting issue with far-reaching impacts across various sectors and interconnections with other global challenges. Climate change has the capacity to influence global water supplies, agricultural production, human health, and the stability of our energy infrastructure. Given the societal and technical challenges in mitigation^[[11]](https://books.google.be/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JAFEBgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT19&ots=dBBGmI1458&sig=JqTuMCez8Lm714FiXhWJy28mai8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false) and adaptation , adopting a Nexus approach, coupled with interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary thinking, is essential to developing sustainable solutions for global problems. ## Subtopic 5: The UN System's Commitment to Climate Change Initiatives - The 2015 adoption of the Paris Climate Agreement was a pivotal moment in international climate policy, establishing a framework for global action and urging nations to design ambitious nationally determined contributions (NDCs). However, despite progress, concerns persist about the UN Framework Conv The adoption of the Paris Climate Agreement in 2015 marked a significant milestone in international climate policy. It established a framework for global climate action and prompted countries to formulate ambitious national climate plans, known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Despite the progress witnessed under the Paris Agreement, concerns have been raised by commentators and scholars about the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change's (UNFCCC) ability to effectively address the urgent challenges of climate change. While there have been notable advancements, at the time of writing, the national climate commitments fall short of meeting the global objective of limiting temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit). Furthermore, many experts believe that these commitments lack the necessary support to address critical adaptation efforts. A 2022 article for the World Resources Institute expressed that, even with existing commitments, there is a need to ensure that adequate planning and funding are in place to translate these pledges into tangible actions. The responsibility for translating the goals of the Paris Agreement into practical action largely falls on national governments. Critics contend that a key element missing from the overall strategy is a universal agreement among governments on the necessary measures to achieve the 60% to 80% reduction in emissions, as recommended by scientists to stabilize the atmosphere. The UN, acting as an impartial mediator, is constantly involved in helping to build trust between nations. This trust is grounded in mutual self-interest and a shared commitment to a common cause, even if progress occurs at varying speeds. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) noted that rapidly developing economies had collectively reduced emissions by 500 million tonnes in the previous three decades, surpassing the reductions of Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol^[[12]](https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/un-role-climate-change-action-taking-lead-towards-global-response) . ## Sources and further reading - [Frozen in Time: Climate Clues Hidden in Ice](https://youtu.be/_8dzKWfAcwM) — Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, 2022 - [Climate change in 60 seconds](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4e5UPu1co0) — The Royal Society, 2014 - [The 5 greatest challenges of fighting climate change.](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RwIP-sZsipM) — Knittel, C. MIT Sloan School of Management, 2019 - [Climate Change Impacts Studies Database.](https://www.ipcc.ch/publication/climate-change-impacts-studies-database/) — The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - [Climate Databases.](https://www.iges.or.jp/en/projects/climate-databases) — Institute for Global Environmental Strategies - [Monitoring and measuring progress towards climate ambitions](https://www.oecd.org/climate-change/data/) — Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - [Climate Change Data](https://climatedata.imf.org/pages/climatechange-data) — International Monetary Fund - [Climate Change](https://data.worldbank.org/topic/climate-change) — The World Bank - [National Environmental Public Health Tracking Network](https://ephtracking.cdc.gov/DataExplorer/) — Center for Disease Control and Prevention - [Infographic: Cutting emissions to avoid the worst impacts of climate change](https://www.carbonbrief.org/media/322456/wri-square-infog.png) — Carbon Brief - [Climate Policy Database](https://climatepolicydatabase.org/) — New Climate Institute - [Climate change Database](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/climate-change/database) — Eurostat - [Carbon Pricing Dashboard](https://carbonpricingdashboard.worldbank.org/) — The World Bank - [Could a giant ‘sun umbrella’ help stop climate change and is it a good idea?](https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/08/01/could-a-giant-sun-umbrella-help-stop-climate-change-and-is-it-a-good-idea) — Symons, A. Euronews, 2023 - [Understanding climate-related risks for early warning, prevention and peacebuilding in the Middle East and North Africa region.](https://www.unssc.org/news-and-insights/blog/understanding-climate-related-risks-early-warning-prevention-and) — St-Louis, M. and Cucinotta, G. United Nations System Staff College, 2023 - [What does “unabated” fossil fuels mean?](https://www.climatechangenews.com/2023/06/26/what-does-unabated-fossil-fuels-mean/) — Civillini, M. Climate Home News, 2023 - [Leveraging critical race theory to produce equitable climate change adaptation.](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01690-9) — Rudge, K. Nature, 2023 - [The untapped potential of education in the battle against climate change](https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/untapped-potential-education-battle-against-climate-change) — Angrist, N. et al. World Bank Blogs, 2023 - [The most effective individual steps to tackle climate change aren't being discussed](https://phys.org/news/2017-07-effective-individual-tackle-climate-discussed.html) — The Institute of Physics, 2017 - [The challenge of climate change](https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/sustainability/our-insights/the-challenge-of-climate-change) — McKinsey Sustainability, 2020 - [Why it is so difficult to tackle climate change](https://www.thestatesman.com/opinion/why-it-is-so-difficult-to-tackle-climate-change-1503153758.html) — Sheng, A. The Statesman, 2023 - [The trio of obstacles on climate change](https://www.afr.com/policy/energy-and-climate/the-trio-of-obstacles-on-climate-change-20200214-p540rm) — Buiter, W. The Financial Review, 2020 - [What is Climate Change?](https://climatekids.nasa.gov/climate-change-meaning/) — National Aeronautics and Space Administration - [Basics of Climate Change](https://www.epa.gov/climatechange-science/basics-climate-change) — Environmental Protection Agency - [Climate Change Knowledge Portal](https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/) — World Bank - [Climate Change Resources for Educators and Students](https://www.epa.gov/climate-change/climate-change-resources-educators-and-students) — Environmental Protection Agency - [Climate Change Concepts.](https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/canadian-centre-climate-services/basics/concepts.html) — Government of Canada - [Climate Change Resources](https://www.wwf.org.uk/get-involved/schools/resources/climate-change-resources) — World Wide Fund for Nature - [For Educators.](https://climate.nasa.gov/for-educators/) — National Aeronautics and Space Administration - [What is climate change? A really simple guide](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-24021772) — BBC, 2023 - [What Is Climate Change?](https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change) — United Nations - [21st Century Challenges: Ready for Impact?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8H_F_pQXgB4) — Harrabin, R. 21st Century Challenges, 2016 - [21st Century Challenges: Ready For Impact?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJm7zLj4bEY) — Goodall, C. 21st Century Challenges, 2016 ## About the author: Azin Zarei, United Nations University Azin Zarei is a Senior Research Assistant at the United Nations University Institute for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes and of Resources (UNU-FLORES). She is currently involved in the Sustainability Nexus Analytics, Informatics, and Data (AID) Programme, which aims to identify and promote information, data, computational techniques, and analytical tools facilitating the global sustainable management of water, soil, waste, energy, and geo resources. The program involves an international network of scientists and professionals working at the intersection of science, policy, and society to facilitate regional and global collaborative efforts to address planetary crises and achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Dr. Azin Zarei holds a Ph.D. focused on improving existing methods for climate vulnerability and risk assessment in grassland/forest areas. She has previously worked in a similar field as a researcher at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Germany, and UNESCO-IHP, France. --- # Current Global Debates About Human Rights URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/current-global-debates-about-human-rights Published: 2024-11-18 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Rhoda E. Howard-Hassmann, Wilfrid Laurier University (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/rhoda-e-howard-hassmann-wilfrid-laurier-university) Category: Political System Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) The International Human Rights Regime is made up of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1976 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the 1976 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It is a system of declarations and treaties that countries are expected to obey once they agree to them. ## Summary - The International Human Rights Regime is the basis of international human rights. - Some people argue that human rights are colonial. - Some people think there is too much emphasis on civil and political rights. - Some people argue that human rights undermine cultures and communities. - Human rights cannot solve large-scale worldwide problems. ## Subtopic 1: The International Human Rights Regime - The International Human Rights Regime is made up of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1976 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the 1976 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It is a system of declarations and treaties that countries a The international human rights regime is a system of declarations and treaties that the United Nations began formulating in 1948, starting with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A declaration is a statement of principles that a State can vote for at the UN.  Treaties are laws that countries are expected to adhere to once they ratify (legally approve) a treaty. Declarations are often considered “soft law” that countries should adhere to even in the absence of treaties. The International Bill of Rights [IBHR] is composed of the UDHR, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights [ICCPR] and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, [ICESCR] both of which entered into force in 1976. A covenant or treaty enters into force when a specified number of States has ratified it. These documents are statements of principle. It might seem obvious to readers that the principles of human rights should apply universally. However, there is much debate among scholars and activists about whether human rights should be universal. Activists and scholars also point out many other problematic aspects of human rights, as discussed below. ## Subtopic 2: The Debate about Universality - Some critics believe that international human rights law is a colonial or Western creation. However, 56 countries participated in formulating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.These include many non-Western countries, such as Soviet Bloc and Latin American countries, China and India. Some critics deny that human rights are universal. They believe that the human rights regime is a colonial creation^[[1]](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/decolonizing-human-rights/FC1946C22A12BB6BE026B176C3A48E11) , reflecting the views and wishes of the Western world, or the global North. In fact, 56 countries collaborated in formulating the UDHR. These included many non-Western countries, for example, Soviet Bloc and Latin American countries, as well as China and India. Both Soviet Bloc and Latin American countries had distinct conceptions of human rights, especially “economic” human rights, which influenced the formulation^[[2]](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1f45qf8) of the UDHR. Sub-Saharan African countries did not participate in the formulation of the UDHR, as they were colonies at the time. However, many representatives of African nationalist organizations lobbied the UN for the UDHR. They pushed for Article 2 of the UDHR, in particular, which stated that everyone had human rights, even if they were still inhabitants of colonies. This was especially important as the colonial powers of the time had actually opposed^[[3]](https://www.pennpress.org/9780812222586/decolonization-and-the-evolution-of-international-human-rights/) extending human rights to colonial subjects. As former colonies became independent, they participated in formulating the ICCPR and the ICESCR, as well as new treaties such as the 1969 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and the 1987 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. The one group consistently left out of formulating the international human rights regime is Indigenous peoples, who do not have their own countries. All Indigenous peoples are subject to the power of whatever State they reside in. In general, they do not have an independent say in formulating or applying any UN human rights documents. Indigenous peoples did, however, contribute to the formulation of the 2007 UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. ## Subtopic 3: Critical Perspectives on Human Rights - Critics of human rights argue that they are too liberal; that they are overly judicialized; and that they reflect a male point of view. In general, they contend that human rights stress civil and political rights rather than economic, social and cultural rights. One can reply, however, that civil an Some critics argue^[[4]](https://digitalcommons.du.edu/hrhw/vol8/iss1/19/) that human rights reflect Western liberalism, especially its stress on individual freedom. They argue that too much emphasis is placed on civil and political rights such as protection from torture, freedom of speech, and the right to vote. This stress on individual freedom ignores the set of equally or more important economic and social rights, such as the rights to food, health care, and education. This is so even though both sets of rights are included in the IBHR. Some critics argue^[[5]](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/practice-of-human-rights/conclusion-tyrannosaurus-lex-the-anthropology-of-human-rights-and-transnational-law/8D70BFAC63269EEA084A1D27387078CC) that human rights have been overly judicialized. They claim that matters that should be decided by governments, or by discussions among groups or individuals, become legal matters for courts to decide. This, critics argue^[[6]](https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=32746) , is an example of Western judicial imperialism, in which Western norms of justice become universal norms, overpowering local or indigenous legal systems. Some feminist commentators argue^[[7]](https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812201666.58/html?lang=en) that human rights are also too male. Human rights stress formal, legal demands against governments or other perpetrators, instead of informal means of dispute resolution, which women supposedly prefer. Moreover, these commentators argue that women are more interested in economic and social rights than civil and political rights. Their chief concern is taking care of their families, not speaking in public or participating in politics. Two responses can be offered to the criticism that there is too much stress on civil and political rights. The first response argues that these rights have a strategic value. Without them, people cannot act in their own interests against the forces that oppress them. If speaking your mind about a government that steals your food gets you landed in jail and tortured, for example, then your right to food is meaningless. Women, like men, can be persecuted by governments for various reasons, such as their ethnicity or religion. They, therefore, need the right to speak out and take part in politics in order to defend their own interests, even if those interests are mainly to feed and educate their children. The second response argues that civil and political rights have an intrinsic value. They cover many aspects of human existence that most people want, such as freedom of religion or the right to practice their own culture, a right covered by the ICCPR in Article 27. People also want the right to belong to a community or a nation. This is especially relevant for Stateless people, who officially belong nowhere, and live in a state of uncertainly with no rights and no one to protect them, even though the UDHR in Article 15 says everyone has the right to a nationality. ## Subtopic 4: Community vs. Individualism - Some critics believe that human rights are too individualistic; that they undermine communities and cultures; and that they ignore human duties in favor of human rights. These critics argue that human rights undermine the collective obligations that communities need to survive. Some critics worry^[[8]](https://www.wiley.com/en-it/In+Defense+of+Universal+Human+Rights-p-9781509513536) that human rights undermine communities. This can happen if human rights contradict local customs, which often arises in cases involving women’s rights, children’s rights, and LGBTQ+ rights. This can also happen if human rights undermine local belief systems, as in the case of freedom of religion. Currently some African^[[9]](https://www.npr.org/2023/05/29/1178718092/uganda-anti-gay-law) and other governments, including Russia^[[10]](https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/05/17/russia-homophobia-and-battle-traditional-values) , argue that LGBTQ+ rights violate their own traditional, religious and cultural norms. It is argued^[[11]](https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=32746) that human rights also focus too much on the individuals’ claims against the state, the community, or even the family, in the case of women’s and children’s rights. That is, they undermine the sense of collective obligation that communities need to survive. They teach people to put their own desires above the collective need, principles, and ethics of the community they live in. Thus, it seems to critics that people have rights but no duties. The human rights regime is based upon the principle that States have the duty to uphold human rights. The problem seems to be that individuals do not have similar duties. This is the case even though the UDHR in Article 29 states that “Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his [sic] personality is possible.” Human rights, in this view, reflect individuals’ desires, rather than their actual needs as expressed in international human rights documents. The international human rights regime creates cultural clashes. For example, insisting that a young girl has the right to sex education could be seen to undermine a community’s norms regarding abstinence before marriage. Insisting that gays and lesbians should enjoy human rights could be seen to undermine the entire institution of marriage. Insisting that Indigenous people^[[12]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/016934411503300403) stop using corporal punishment of members that violate their rules could be seen to undermine their way of making sure individuals obey community norms. In general, critics argue^[[13]](https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=32746) that human rights drive a wedge between different sectors of the community who might previously have lived together in harmony. ## Subtopic 5: Large-Scale International Problems - Some critics argue that human rights cannot solve the large-scale international problems of the 21st century. These problems include inequality, underdevelopment, climate change, and warfare. Critics also argue that human rights cannot deal with the pressing, large-scale problems of the 21st century. Among these problems are the harms created by the global capitalist system. It is argued^[[14]](https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674241398) that human rights cannot help remedy the increasing inequality in the world today. It is not enough to have a regime that stresses minimum economic rights such as the right to food. Yet there is no human right to minimum levels of inequality, or any way to use human rights to prescribe a maximum level. Nor can human rights specify the public policies that are needed to provide an adequate standard of living, as prescribed in Article 25 of the UDHR. Either new sets of human rights, or new ways of dealing with large-scale worldwide problems, are needed^[[15]](https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/Taking-Suffering-Seriously) to face collective threats to all humankind or to specific groups in the world. One such collective right is the right to development, protected by the 1986 UN Declaration on the Right to Development. This right is essentially the right of developing countries to be protected from exploitation by developed countries. If properly implemented, it would require wealthy countries and corporations to modify investment, lending, banking, trade, and aid practices as applied to poorer countries. It would also protect local workers and populations from the harms caused by foreign banks and corporations. The entire world is now threatened by climate change, yet human rights — grounded as they are in individual claims — cannot deal with this existential threat. Although there have been cases^[[16]](https://www.ia-forum.org/Files/IA%20Forum%20Winter%202023.pdf) of people suing government entities for not protecting them from climate change, in general individual human rights cannot solve this problem. Nor can a human rights declaration of principles or even a treaty force States to do what is necessary to mitigate climate change and prevent utter disaster. Similarly, human rights cannot solve the problems of war and peace. Prevention of war and guarantees of peace seem beyond the capabilities of the human rights regime. ## Subtopic 6: Sovereignty and Human Rights - Sovereign states frequently violate their citizens’ human rights. They also exhibit little concern for the rights of others in their trade, investment, and foreign policies. Some countries impose sanctions on rights-violating countries, for example by restricting trade with them, or restricting thei The biggest obstacle to realizing international human rights is State sovereignty. While countries that have voted for UN human rights declarations or have signed human rights treaties are not supposed to violate the relevant rights of their citizens, many still do. The international system simply does not have the resources to police what countries do. Short of war, the best that can be done is to impose sanctions on some of the States that violate human rights, such as restricting trade with those countries or restricting the movements of their leaders. Unfortunately, though, it is possible^[[17]](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Events/Seminars/CoercitiveMeasures/DursunPeksen.pdf) to avoid sanctions which, in any case, often harm local populations more than they harm their ruler. In extremely rare cases, the international community can accuse a state’s leaders of crimes against humanity or genocide and refer them to the International Criminal Court, a UN-created body based in the Netherlands. “Northern” countries set their own trade policies, as long as they follow the rules of international organizations of which they are members, such as the World Trade Organization. Quite often, these countries will trade with other countries that abuse human rights, as national economic security takes precedence over human rights of foreign individuals. Similarly, both Northern countries and private banks profit by lending to the governments of under-developed countries. Human rights simply do not have the rules or tools to guard against economic exploitation of developing countries by Northern States and corporations. Many non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International, and many private foundations that disburse funds for worthy causes were created, and are still headquartered, in the West. Despite their worthy goals, they are sometimes accused^[[18]](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/decolonizing-human-rights/FC1946C22A12BB6BE026B176C3A48E11) of setting their own priorities, disregarding the priorities of Southern “partners”. All sovereign States are free to make their own foreign policy decisions. Occasionally, Western countries take the human rights performance of other countries into account in their foreign policies. Some countries such as Canada^[[19]](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.cttq461m) , the UK and the US sometimes impose human rights conditions on their foreign aid. When they do so, the recipient countries can accuse them of human rights imperialism. In any case, most foreign and aid policy is based on national interests in relation to security, alliances, investment, and trade; there is very little room left over for human rights. #### Conclusion Human rights seem to be irrelevant to the actual problems besetting the vast majority of the world’s people. At best, human rights are one tool in a larger toolbox required to obtain social justice. Perhaps the stress on laws and treaties has obscured the reality of the limited reach of human rights. ## Sources and further reading - [What are the human rights issues facing the world today?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ntdk3gwYLec) — Al Jazeera, 2018 - [Special Procedures - A spotlight on individual and collective human rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0vT_1gjdWc) — United Nations Human Rights Council, 2016 - [Future of Human Rights Blog](https://www.openglobalrights.org/the-future-of-human-rights-blog/) — OpenGlobalRights - [Human Rights](https://ourworldindata.org/human-rights) — Our World in Data - [Human rights indicators](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-and-mechanisms/human-rights-indicators) — United Nations Human Rights Office - [Human rights worldwide - Statistics and Facts](https://www.statista.com/topics/8285/human-rights/#topicOverview) — Statista - [Statistical Reports](https://www.echr.coe.int/statistical-reports) — European Court of Human Rights - [Are Human Rights Universal?](https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/are-human-rights-universal) — Pillay, N. United Nations Chronicle - [Human rights are still in demand](https://www.openglobalrights.org/human-rights-still-in-demand/) — Dancy, G. and Fariss, C. J. OpenGlobalRights, 2023 - [Decolonising human rights](https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/05/decolonizing-human-rights-salil-shetty/) — Shetty, S. Amnesty International, 2018 - [Decolonising human rights discourse](https://ishr.ch/latest-updates/decolonising-human-rights-discourse/) — Lynch, P. and Patel, P. International Service for Human Rights, 2022 - [Decolonization—not western liberals—established human rights on the global agenda](https://www.openglobalrights.org/decolonization-not-western-liberals-established-human-rights-on-g/) — Jensen, S. L. B. OpenGlobalRights, 2016 - [Seventy years of international human rights](https://theconversation.com/seventy-years-of-international-human-rights-108446) — Howard-Hassmann, R. E. The Conversation, 2018 - [Indigenous human rights claims outline promising new ways of life](https://www.openglobalrights.org/indigenous-human-rights-claims-outline-promising-new-ways-life/index.cfm) — Davis, B. OpenGlobalRights, 2023 - [Are Human Rights Really ‘Universal, Inalienable, and Indivisible’?](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2016/09/14/are-human-rights-really-universal-inalienable-and-indivisible/) — Nasr, L. LSE Human Rights blog, 2016 - [When Rights and Cultures Collide](https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/when-rights-and-cultures-collide/) — Musalo, K. Issues in Ethics, 1997 - [Decolonizing the narrative around constitutions, personal laws, and women’s rights](https://www.openglobalrights.org/decolonizing-narrative-around-constitutions-personal-laws-womens-rights/index.cfm) — Nabaneh, S., Inglis, S. and Waldorf, L. OpenGlobalRights, 2023 - [Inequality and Human Rights](https://inference-review.com/article/inequality-and-human-rights) — Young, K. Inference, 2019 - [The Future of Human Rights Blog](https://www.openglobalrights.org/the-future-of-human-rights-blog/) — Rodríguez-Garavito, C. OpenGlobalRights - [The case against human rights](https://www.theguardian.com/news/2014/dec/04/-sp-case-against-human-rights) — Posner, E. The Guardian, 2014 - [Universal Declaration of Human Rights](https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights) — United Nations General Assembly, 1945 - [International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-convention-elimination-all-forms-racial) — United Nations General Assembly, 1965 - [International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights) — United Nations General Assembly, 1966 - [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural-rights) — United Nations General Assembly, 1976 - [Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-against-torture-and-other-cruel-inhuman-or-degrading) — United Nations General Assembly, 1984 - [Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/declaration-right-peoples-peace) — United Nations General Assembly, 1984 - [Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court](https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/rome-statute-international-criminal-court) — United Nations, 1998 - [Declaration On The Rights Of Indigenous Peoples](https://social.desa.un.org/issues/indigenous-peoples/united-nations-declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples) — United Nations General Assembly, 2007 - [Key concepts on ESCRs - Are economic, social and cultural rights fundamentally different from civil and political rights?](https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/economic-social-cultural-rights/escr-vs-civil-political-rights) — Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights - [The Right to Development at a glance](https://www.un.org/en/events/righttodevelopment/pdf/rtd_at_a_glance.pdf) — Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights - [Advancing the Right to a Healthy Environment](https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/environmental-rights-and-governance/what-we-do/advancing-right-healthy-environment) — United Nations Environment Programme - [The Limits of Individual Human Rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJ_bmCMSf4Q) — Aumeeruddy-Cziffra, S. TEDx Talks, 2022 - [What are the universal human rights?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDgIVseTkuE) — Berti, B. TED-Ed, 2015 - [The Judicialization of the Right to Health in Brazil](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBr9I3l_7WI) — Biehl, J. Yale University, 2019 - [Debate on Human Rights](https://www.nyu.edu/london/academics/academic-events/debate-on-human-rights----april-2014.html) — New York University, 2014 - [Human Rights and International Relations](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sAlp7NQV_E4) — Institute of Politics Harvard Kennedy School, 2021 - [Human Rights in U.S. Foreign Policy: The Unalienable Rights Commission](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ttWuCQ7dgpU) — Institute for Human Ecology, 2020 - [Inequality and Human Rights Conference](https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgzC3PHoeEGAJ2H3hEo7OVjJg6fz9oGP7) — Rapoport Center for Human Rights and Justice, 2016 - [Is the Human Rights Movement in Crisis?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1L35XVXn4I) — Open Society Foundations, 2018 - [Croesus' World: Human Rights in the Age of Inequality](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4HrfMC7vtQ) — Moyn, S. Rapoport Center for Human Rights and Justice, 2015 - [Human rights vs. Capitalism](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N9AzVBsfY0I) — Nowak, M. Digi24, 2017 - [Amnesty International's Salil Shetty on Decolonising Human Rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66U7eN7Lavc) — Shetty, S. LSE Law School, 2018 - [The Effectiveness of the International Human Rights Regime](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jxOUKahkwiE) — The Jerusalem Center, 2008 - [Trade vs Human Rights: Should atrocities prevent foreign business deals?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K4_u0O_vJWc) — Roundtable, - [Privatization, Human Rights, Media, EU Negotiations & Capitalism](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-US9w0Nm8K0) — Varoufakis, Y. acTVism Munich, 2016 ## About the author: Rhoda E. Howard-Hassmann, Wilfrid Laurier University Rhoda Howard-Hassmann is Professor Emerita at Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada, where from 2003 to 2016 she held the Canada Research Chair in International Human Rights. Before that she taught in the Sociology Department at McMaster University, Canada for 27 years. She is the author or co-editor of twelve books, including most recently In Defense of International Human Rights (2018), State Food Crimes (2016), and The Human Right to Citizenship (2015). She has also published on such topics as women’s rights, gay and lesbian rights, multiculturalism, development (especially in Africa), economic and social rights, political apologies, and reparations (to Africa). She has won several academic awards for her work on international human rights, and is both a Member of the Order of Canada and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. --- # Ethics and Practices of Humanitarian Intervention URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/ethics-and-practices-of-humanitarian-intervention Published: 2024-08-20 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/francis-jegede-university-of-derby) Category: International Relations Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Through the use of "humanitarian intervention", states use military force to solve humanitarian crises in other states without their consent. This starkly contrasts with standard humanitarian aid, in which organisations offer their assistance in a lawful and controlled manner within the framework of international law. There has been much discussion surrounding the ethical implications of humanitarian action, specifically regarding humanitarian intervention, which pits the principle of protecting human rights against the principle of non-intervention in state sovereignty. ## Summary - Humanitarian action and humanitarian intervention are different in many ways. - The UN has a special responsibility to help people affected by war and disaster. - Humanitarian advocacy and multi-party dialogue are particularly important amid the chaos of war and disaster. ## Subtopic 1: The Politics of Humanitarian Intervention - Through the use of "humanitarian intervention", states use military force to solve humanitarian crises in other states without their consent. This starkly contrasts with standard humanitarian aid, in which organisations offer their assistance in a lawful and controlled manner within the framework of #### Humanitarian Action and Humanitarian Intervention**** Humanitarian action refers to activities conducted by impartial humanitarian organisations like international NGOs, UN agencies, etc. Their goal is to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity during crises, based on the three key principles of neutrality, independence, and impartiality. For example, Doctors Without Borders, the International Committee of the Red Cross, and Action Against Hunger all provide emergency relief following natural disasters, epidemics, and conflicts. Their activities include disaster response, healthcare, food/water distribution, providing shelter, education and more. Importantly, their funding comes from voluntary donations and must not be tied to any political agenda to be considered humanitarian. ​​In reality, however, retaining full independence from donor political interests and agendas can be challenging. Most organisations aim to use funds impartially, but the risk of politicisation^[[1]](https://www.e-ir.info/2017/04/13/is-humanitarian-aid-politicized/) remains an issue of concern in the sector. > An entire body of philosophical debate is dedicated to the question of whether moral values are universal or indeed subject to "moral relativism". See Harman, G. and Thomson, J. J. (1996) Moral relativism and moral objectivity. ; Gowans, C. (2004) Moral relativism. ; Enke, B., Rodríguez-Padilla, R. and Zimmermann, F. (2023) Moral universalism and the structure of ideology. The Review of Economic Studies, 90(4), 1934-1962. Humanitarian intervention refers to the use of military force by states to address a humanitarian crisis in another state, without its consent. It is thus an illegal act whose legitimacy relies on moral considerations. It is thus understandably prone to criticism^[[2]](https://nurembergtothehague.info/Protectionism/Humanitarian%20intevention-2011.pdf) , since there are consistent debates about the universality of moral values, and this legitimacy has been in direct confrontation with other principles considered legitimate, especially that of non-intervention. While both humanitarian action and intervention aim to help victims, they differ significantly in the actors involved, activities, guiding principles and legal status. The neutrality of humanitarian aid is contrasted with the political nature of state interventions, and constitutes the main breaking point between the two. #### The Ethics of Humanitarian Intervention The principles and practices of humanitarian intervention have long been the subject of debate. The controversy centres on whether it is appropriate for a state or group of states to use military force against another state in order to prevent or stop human rights abuses. This issue is particularly contentious because it pits the humanitarian impulse to protect vulnerable populations against the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of other states. The key question is: can any forceful (military) intervention in the affairs of an independent country by another country be justified on humanitarian grounds? If so, when and by whom should such intervention be carried out? > According to Article 2.4 of the Charter, the principle of non-intervention includes, but is not limited to, the prohibition of the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state. The principle of non-intervention is a cornerstone of international law. It is enshrined in the United Nations Charter, which states that _"nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorise the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state"._ Non-intervention implies that states have the right to govern themselves without interference from other states. Its purpose is to prevent war and maintain international stability. However, the principle of non-intervention has been challenged in recent years by the rise of humanitarian intervention. Humanitarian intervention is defined^[[3]](https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/military-intervention-humanitarian-purposes-does-responsibility-protect-doctrine-advance) as the use of military force by a state or group of states to protect people within another state from gross and systematic violations of human rights. Humanitarian intervention aims to prevent or put an end to atrocities like ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. > Examples of intervention include Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, Kosovo, East Timor, Sierra Leone, or the Democratic Republic of Congo. Those who support humanitarian intervention argue that the international community has a moral obligation to protect people subjected to gross and systematic violations of human rights, even if that protection requires the use of military force. In this regard, they argue that the principle of non-intervention should not be absolute. According to them, in specific situations, the international community should be able to take action to prevent or stop atrocities. Opponents of humanitarian intervention, on the other hand, argue^[[4]](https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010602033003004) that non-intervention is a fundamental principle of international law that should not be violated. They believe that the use of force against another state without its consent violates the principles of state sovereignty and territorial integrity. These critics argue human security is better served through peaceful diplomacy and continuous development rather than military imposition, which can have unwanted side effects. They also claim that humanitarian intervention can be used as a pretext for powerful states to intervene in the affairs of weaker states for their own strategic interests. One example is the NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999. In the late 1990s, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), led by President Slobodan Milosevic, engaged in a brutal conflict with ethnic Albanians in the province of Kosovo. The conflict led to a humanitarian crisis, with widespread human rights abuses and war crimes, including forced displacement, massacres, and systematic violence against the civilian population. By 1999, over 800,000 people had been internally displaced and thousands killed^[[5]](https://www.unhcr.org/ie/media/kosovo-refugee-crisis-independent-evaluation-unhcrs-emergency-preparedness-and-response) in the escalating violence. NATO claimed it had an obligation to intervene to protect Kosovo's civilian population from further atrocities and restore stability. However, some critics believed NATO’s intervention was motivated by geopolitical calculations and the pursuit of strategic interests by its member states. They argued^[[6]](https://doi.org/10.2307/2555346) that NATO's real intention was not only to protect human lives and uphold international standards, but also to expand its influence in the Balkans. Other critics believed that the intervention was launched, in part, to prevent a potential refugee crisis that could spill over into neighbouring countries. The issue of humanitarian intervention is further complicated by the challenge of judging whether the use of force is “justified” or “appropriate”. There are no clear or universally agreed criteria for determining when a situation constitutes a humanitarian crisis that requires intervention. This dilemma has given rise to a number of debates, some more contentious than the NATO intervention in Yugoslavia. For example, the US-led invasion of Iraq, which did not obtain UN Security Council approval, comes readily to mind. ## Subtopic 2: The United Nations’s Role in Disaster Response - The UN plays a vital role in coordinating global disaster response through key initiatives. The UN Crisis Relief Appeal raises humanitarian funds for emergency disaster aid. The Central Emergency Response Fund swiftly deploys resources where most needed. With climate disasters increasing, these UN m Disasters are unpredictable events that can strike at any time, causing extensive harm to human life, property, and the environment. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, heatwaves, droughts, and heavy rainfall, have increased^[[7]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-11/) in many parts of the world over the past few decades. This underscores the urgent need for effective disaster management and preparedness. International humanitarian organisations and the United Nations (UN) have taken steps to address this issue. These include the establishment of the UN Crisis Relief and Humanitarian Appeal and the UN Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF). The UN Crisis Relief and Humanitarian Appeal is a mechanism that helps to coordinate the worldwide response to disasters and humanitarian crises. It is a joint effort between the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and humanitarian organisations. This initiative aims to raise funds that support emergency relief in response to disasters and humanitarian crises around the world. The funds raised are channelled towards immediate emergency relief efforts. They involve providing essentials like food, water, shelter, and medical care. > Set up in 1998, OCHA’s mission is to mobilise and coordinate effective humanitarian action with national and international actors. It aims to alleviate human suffering and disaster in emergencies, advocate for the rights of people in need, promote preparedness and prevention, and facilitate sustainable solutions. The appeal is launched annually. It provides a platform for governments, non-governmental organisations, and other stakeholders to come together and contribute to the global humanitarian response. The approach taken is based on the needs of the affected populations, with priority given to the most critical and immediate ones. Additionally, the appeal urges donors to provide flexible funding. Flexible funding indeed allows financial resources to be used with few or no restrictions, allowing humanitarian actors to allocate funds according to changing demands. Another critical component of international disaster response is the UN Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF). The CERF was established in 2006 to provide rapid and predictable funding to support humanitarian responses to disasters and crises. The fund is managed by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and is financed through voluntary contributions from governments, the private sector, and individuals. The CERF stands out for its ability to respond quickly to emergencies. When a disaster strikes, the CERF can release funds within 24 hours to support immediate life-saving activities. In addition to rapid and predictable funding, the CERF also supports the coordination of humanitarian responses. It works with humanitarian organisations to identify gaps in the response and to ensure that resources are allocated to the most critical needs. The Central Emergency Response Fund has contributed significantly to humanitarian responses to disasters and crises around the world. According to its official website and reports from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), since 2006, the CERF has provided^[[8]](https://cerf.un.org/about-us/who-we-are) over $5.5 billion to support emergency response efforts in over 100 countries. The CERF has significantly contributed^[[9]](https://cerf.un.org/news/story/cerf-2020-uns-global-emergency-fund-helped-worlds-most-vulnerable-people-through) to addressing the COVID-19 pandemic, allocating funds to support the provision of medical supplies and the health of vulnerable populations. The UN Crisis Relief and Humanitarian Appeal and the UN Central Emergency Response Fund are two important tools used in the global response to disasters. These mechanisms are designed to swiftly provide funding for emergency response efforts and the coordination of humanitarian response. This coordination is essential to ensure that efforts are not duplicated and that resources are distributed effectively to maximise their impact. Given the growing frequency of disasters and crises worldwide, these mechanisms will play^[[10]](https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-risks-report-2023/) an increasingly critical role in supporting international humanitarian action. ## Subtopic 3: Humanitarian Advocacy: Speaking for the Voiceless - Anti-globalisation movements have emerged in response to perceived negative aspects of globalisation. They have grown largely in opposition to growing economic inequality and the erosion of cultural identity, both perceived consequences of globalisation. Critics argue that globalisation benefits the Humanitarian advocacy promotes the provision of support, assistance and protection for those affected by conflicts, disasters and emergencies. It involves standing up for the rights of those in need and ensuring that they are given the aid they require to rebuild their lives. Victims of war and natural disasters are indeed often unable to express their needs clearly due to their difficult circumstances. One of the primary challenges of humanitarian advocacy is to ensure that their voices are heard and their rights protected. This takes a coordinated effort between humanitarian organisations, government agencies and other stakeholders. Collectively, they strive to design plans and implement actions to meet the specific needs of vulnerable populations. In addition to the promotion of human rights, humanitarian advocacy also focuses on building resilience and promoting sustainable development. This can involve supporting local communities to develop their own solutions to the challenges they face, or promoting sustainable agriculture. This also encompasses strengthening the capacity of local organisations to respond to emergencies and support vulnerable populations. In practice, humanitarian advocacy covers a wide range of activities aimed at promoting the well-being and rights of individuals affected by conflict or crisis. An illustration of such advocacy is awareness raising, wherein individuals or humanitarian organisations engage in efforts to increase public understanding and awareness of the situation or plight of people in crisis situations. Various channels, including media campaigns, social media platforms, and public events, are used to inform and educate^[[11]](https://www.diplomacy.edu/resource/humanitarian-public-diplomacy-international-calls-to-action-in-the-digital-era/) the public about the situation of people affected by crises, with the aim of mobilising support for them. For example, in 2015, the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) launched the #WithRefugees petition and social media campaign to give citizens a voice in influencing government policy towards refugees during a period of increased global migration. The campaign invited people to sign a petition calling on governments to provide protection, education and jobs for refugees. It leveraged celebrity advocacy on social media and used the public response to put pressure on world leaders ahead of UN summits on refugees and migrants. Humanitarian advocacy also includes lobbying for policy change. Individuals or organisations may work on behalf of people in crisis to influence decision-makers, governments and policymakers to promote social, economic or political actions or policies that meet the needs of people affected by crises. This may entail campaigning for humanitarian assistance, special protection measures, or calling for the provision of essential resources to meet the immediate and long-term needs of communities affected by crises. A concrete case of humanitarian advocacy in action is the international campaign against the use of landmines. During the 1990s, NGOs such as Handicap International and Human Rights Watch spearheaded efforts to ban landmines, which continued to cause horrific injuries to civilians long after conflicts had ended. By documenting the severe toll of landmines, they lobbied governments to support a ban. In 1997, more than 100 countries signed the Ottawa Treaty, which prohibited the use, stockpiling, production, and transfer of anti-personnel mines. This advocacy compelled^[[12]](https://opil.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law/9780199287024.001.0001/law-9780199287024) states to recognise the indiscriminate effects of landmines on civilians and strengthened protections under international humanitarian law. Human rights advocacy also involves actions aimed at defending the freedom and human rights of individuals or communities affected by human rights abuses. For example, advocacy against human rights violations, such as the use of child soldiers, sexual violence, forced displacement, or arbitrary detentions could be aimed at protecting victims or people affected by these activities. Overall, humanitarian advocacy means communicating with decision-makers and the public about the plight of people affected by war and natural disasters. The primary objective is to draw attention to the needs of those affected by crises, and to mobilise resources and support to address these needs. ## Subtopic 4: War, Mediation and Reconciliation - War causes immense suffering and devastation. To achieve lasting peace, mediation and reconciliation through diplomacy and dialogue are often necessary. Mediation involves neutral third parties facilitating discussions between conflicting groups to find solutions. Reconciliation aims to heal damaged #### Interstate Relationships: War and Peace War can be defined^[[13]](https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/war/) as a state of armed conflict between two or more parties, typically involving the use of military force. Whilst the UN does not provide an official definition of war, it does address the concept of armed conflict in its Charter and several of its resolutions. Article 2(4) of the UN Charter provides that the use or threat of force between States is prohibited, except in cases of self-defence or when authorised by the UN Security Council. The impact of war is devastating, especially for the people directly affected. Indeed, war can result in dire consequences, including loss of life, displacement of populations, destruction of infrastructure and economic collapse. Furthermore, it can have long-term effects, such as the destabilisation of a country or entire regions, the perpetuation of poverty, and the exacerbation of social and political tensions within states and between nations. Dialogue has often been seen as the solution^[[14]](https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203698440) to ending war. Mediation and reconciliation provide peaceful, diplomatic methods founded on dialogue to settle disputes and encourage enduring peace. Diplomacy offers the necessary framework for initiating and sustaining mediation efforts. As a cornerstone of international relations, diplomacy involves conducting negotiations and maintaining relationships between nations to address disputes and promote mutual understanding. Diplomacy has become a widely accepted approach to peacekeeping around the world. Diplomats often use their expertise in negotiation and dialogue to create an environment favourable to successful mediation, thereby facilitating the peace process. From its beginning as an informal, arcane practice, diplomacy has evolved over the years into a formal, mainstream and bureaucratic practice that now plays a vital role in resolving conflicts and promoting peaceful resolutions through negotiation and dialogue. Diplomacy, as a method of peacekeeping, has received widespread recognition, ranging from high-level negotiations between nation-states to grassroots initiatives aimed at community reconciliation. Modern diplomatic initiatives often pave the way for mediation processes, enabling the participation of neutral mediators and creating an atmosphere conducive to reconciliation. #### Peace Through Dialogue: Mediation and Reconciliation Mediation is a process that involves a neutral third party that is not part of the fight. Through the mediator's intervention, the goal is to facilitate dialogue between conflicting parties with the aim of resolving their differences and reaching a peaceful solution. Mediation can take many forms. In some instances, it is overseen by larger groups, such as governments who participate in official discussions. Alternatively, it may involve smaller groups with community-based processes involving local leaders and civil society organisations. The Camp David Accords of 1978 are an example of successful mediation. The negotiations took place under the leadership of US President Jimmy Carter, between Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat in the state of Maryland in the United States. Carter spent 13 days shuttling between the two leaders, acting as an intermediary before an agreement was reached. The accords led to a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel, ending 30 years of war, and included the Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula. It was considered^[[15]](https://www.jstor.org/stable/20097065) a major foreign policy achievement for Carter's presidency. One of the key benefits of mediation is its ability to bring conflicting parties together in a neutral, non-violent setting, where they can engage in constructive dialogue and explore potential solutions to their disputes. This can help to break down barriers and build trust between opposing sides, ultimately leading to more sustainable peace. Reconciliation is often associated with mediation and typically follows it. It involves the process of healing and restoring relationships between individuals or groups that have been damaged by conflict. Reconciliation can be achieved in various ways, such as community-based dialogues, healing circles that seek to reconcile communities, or national truth and reconciliation commissions. For instance, the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission represented^[[16]](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18438735/) a major effort to confront past abuses committed under apartheid. It gave a voice to victims and helped South African society move forward after a period of intense conflict. Its success made it a model for other countries dealing with human rights abuses emerging from periods of violence or repression. Reconciliation can address the underlying causes of conflict and promote long-term stability. By tackling the roots of conflict, such as social and economic inequality, discrimination and political exclusion, reconciliation can help prevent future conflict and build more resilient societies. While war, mediation, and reconciliation are complex and multifaceted topics, they are also interconnected. These words denote varying aspects of the human condition. War arises from violent conflicts over power, resources, or ideology. The devastation brought about by war often creates the conditions for mediation and reconciliation, as conflicting parties need to come to the table to resolve their differences. Similarly, mediation and reconciliation can help prevent future clashes by addressing the underlying causes of tension and promoting more inclusive and equitable societies. ## Sources and further reading - [The Humanitarian Principles](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hWtdpxxVy2A) — EU Civil Protection & Humanitarian Aid, 2016 - [Understanding humanitarian action - past, present and future](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jp7K0KWUeVw&t) — Arts and Humanities Research Council, 2015 - [IOM and the Humanitarian-Development-Peace Nexus](https://www.iom.int/video/iom-and-humanitarian-development-peace-nexus) — International Organization for Migration, 2023 - [The New Barbarianism](https://www.csis.org/analysis/new-barbarianism) — Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2017 - [150 years of humanitarian action: The 1949 Geneva Conventions](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lBdQ-Rr4BuQ) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2014 - [Responsibility to Protect?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YqsUDPsQSKE&list=PLWHlURZwSTxAZYbvli1y3Jpwt2fAbs8Ny&index=5) — Context, 2016 - [Inside The World's Worst Humanitarian Crisis](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RWOPlynTcmk) — Vice News, 2019 - [Humanitarian Intervention in South Sudan](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qJwCc6PY-so) — Council on Foreign Relations, 2016 - [ACLED Conflict Index - Ranking violent conflict levels across the world](https://acleddata.com/acled-conflict-index-mid-year-update/) — Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project - [Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts](https://www.rulac.org/) — Geneva Academy Of International Humanitarian Law And Human Rights - [International Humanitarian Law Databases](https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en) — International Committee of the Red Cross - [ERCC Daily Maps of humanitarian risks and events](https://erccportal.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ECHO-Products/Maps#/maps?pageIndex=1) — European Commission - [The Ethics of Armed Humanitarian Intervention](https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/pwks45.pdf) — Coady, C. United States Institute of Peace, 2002 - [Humanitarian intervention in the long nineteenth century](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1mf71b8) — Heraclides, A & Dialla , A. Manchester University Press, 2015 - [Syria air strikes: Were they legal?](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-43766556) — Weller, M. BBC News, 2018 - [Humanitarian Ethics](https://www.coordinationsud.org/wp-content/uploads/1100._chapter_1_en_-_humanitarian_ethics.pdf) — Coordination Sud, 2010 - [Will anyone protect the Rohingya?](https://theconversation.com/will-anyone-protect-the-rohingya-85809) — Auger, V. The Conversation, 2017 - [In Global Conflict Zones, Hospitals and Doctors Are No Longer Spared](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/21/health/gaza-ukraine-hospitals-doctors.html) — Nolen, S. The New York Times, 2023 - [Navigating dilemmas in people-centric humanitarian action](https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2023/08/31/navigating-dilemmas-in-people-centric-humanitarian-action/) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2023 - [Less Money, More Sustainability? Foreign Aid, Civil Society, and COVID-19](https://www.e-ir.info/2020/10/21/opinion-less-money-more-sustainability-foreign-aid-civil-society-and-covid-19/) — Pallas, C. E-International Relations, 2020 - [Moral dilemmas for humanitarianism in the era of “humanitarian” military interventions](https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/irrc_855_schweizer.pdf) — Schweizer, B. International Committee of the Red Cross, 2004 - [Is Humanitarian Aid Politicized?](https://www.e-ir.info/2017/04/13/is-humanitarian-aid-politicized/) — Watts, I. E-International Relations, 2017 - [UN Peacekeeping has a Sexual Abuse Problem](https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/11/un-peacekeeping-has-sexual-abuse-problem) — Wheeler, S. Human Rights Watch, 2020 - [Exploring Humanitarian Law](https://www.icrc.org/en/document/exploring-humanitarian-law-ehl-resource-pack) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2023 - [Newsthink: Ukraine](https://www.redcross.org.uk/get-involved/teaching-resources/newsthink-ukraine) — British Red Cross, 2022 - [The Afghanistan crisis: Newsthink](https://www.redcross.org.uk/get-involved/teaching-resources/the-afghanistan-crisis) — British Red Cross, 2021 - [Tools for Teachers](https://www.redcross.ca/how-we-help/international-humanitarian-law/tools-for-teachers) — Canadian Red Cross - [Venezuela: Humanitarian aid and neutrality](https://www.redcross.org.uk/get-involved/teaching-resources/venezuela-humanitarian-aid) — British Red Cross, 2019 - [International Humanitarian Law and the Law of Armed Conflict](https://cdn.peaceopstraining.org/course_promos/international_humanitarian_law/international_humanitarian_law_english.pdf) — Bouvier, A. Peace Operations Training Institute, 2020 - [Humanitarian Relief Operations](https://cdn.peaceopstraining.org/course_promos/humanitarian_relief_ops/humanitarian_relief_ops_english.pdf) — Wagemans, R. Peace Operations Training Institute, 2022 - [Ethics and politics of humanitarian action: high-level panel discussion](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_yel37kN0z8) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2013 - [The Evolution of Humanitarian Intervention: Lessons Learned From Past Interventions](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_yel37kN0z8) — Council on Foreign Relations, 2014 - [Foreign Aid: Are we really helping others or just ourselves?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xJ6p0B5V_A) — Chishti, C. TEDx Talks, 2016 - [Humanitarian Intervention | Head To Head Debate](https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/172461) — Gibbs, D and Chertoff, M. Oxford Union, 2019 - [Humanitarian intervention does more harm than good](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nUrEXzrDdR8) — Open to Debate, 2018 - [Dilemmas in Humanitarian Intervention](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77U1tlAyWVA) — Chomsky, N. Williams College, 2011 - [Making Humanitarian Response Better](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ou3DUbgEwpY) — Johnson, K. TEDx Talks, 2018 - [The Paradox Of Humanitarian Interventions](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7uFYakKMsiQ) — Ulbricht, B. TEDx Talks, 2014 - [Humanitarian Work The Untold Story](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ittc7_OoaYc) — Ólafsson, G. TEDx Talks, 2015 - [Humanitarianism and the R2P doctrine: A conversation with Professor Gareth Evans](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wEUNzAKZuxQ&list=PLWHlURZwSTxAZYbvli1y3Jpwt2fAbs8Ny&index=4) — Australia National University, 2013 - [The Ethics of Humanitarian Action](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oem_-33Q-ME) — Slim, H. Quinnipiac University, 2014 ## About the author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby Francis Jegede is an experienced academic with over 3 decades in academia in the UK Higher Education sector. He is an Associate Professor at the University of Derby, focusing his research and teaching on diplomacy, conflict resolution, negotiations, terrorism, and political economy of violence. He has held several senior academic positions and developed programs in his disciplines. Passionate about enhancing the student experience, he provides work-based learning opportunities including organising educational field trips to Europe, Africa, and Asia. Over the course of his career, Francis has developed academic links with a number of national and international institutions and organisations including the United Nations Office in Geneva. --- # The Rise of Non-State Actors in the 20th and 21st Century URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/the-rise-of-non-state-actors-in-the-20th-and-21st-century Published: 2024-08-20 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/francis-jegede-university-of-derby) Category: International Relations Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) In the current state of the world, states are no longer the sole owners of power. Non-state actors such as multinational companies, international organisations, or NGOs are gaining more and more economic resources and influence in national and even global affairs. There is a tension there, however, around the question of the legitimacy of these actors. But understanding these unelected yet impactful groups - from Amnesty International to Blackwater - sheds light on modern governance. ## Summary - Non-state actors have become a powerful force in global affairs. - They are, however, very different in form and purpose. - Non-state actors raise new questions about legitimacy and interference in politics. ## Subtopic 1: State and Non-State Actors - In the current state of the world, states are no longer the sole owners of power. Non-state actors such as multinational companies, international organisations, or NGOs are gaining more and more economic resources and influence in national and even global affairs. There is a tension there, however, #### Definition of State and Non-State Actors In the contemporary world, the distinction between state and non-state actors is becoming increasingly blurred. State actors are typically defined as institutions or individuals that hold formal political power within a given territory. Non-state actors, on the other hand, are those that do not hold formal political power, but may still exert a significant influence on political, economic, and social processes. States are complex and organised political entities that hold a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a defined territory. A state encompasses a variety of institutions and individuals vested with formal political power within the territory. These actors possess the authority and legitimacy to make and enforce laws, collect taxes, and provide public services. > While states possess formal governing institutions that exercise sovereign authority over a defined territory and population, nations or regions refer to groups of people bound by informal commonalities like culture, language, ethnicity and history. States have recognizable political structures, make laws, interact internationally and adhere to norms of international law. > > Nations/regions lack formal political institutions and are based more on historical social ties. Nations/regions may qualify as nation-states when their identity aligns with the political structure of the state, with everything it encompasses (monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a defined territory, authority, legitimacy, etc.). In terms of international relations, state actors operate within the formal political institutions and structures of a particular country, such as its government, military, and legal system. The state is seen as a unitary actor that represents the interests of the country as a whole in the international arena. They are led by representatives who act on behalf of their states and their citizens. Non-state actors are those that do not hold formal political power, but may still exert a significant influence on political, economic, and social processes within a country. These actors can take many forms, including civil society organisations, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), multinational corporations, and social movements. Non-state actors encompass a diverse range of people and organisations that operate independently of states. While some may be dissatisfied with state policies, non-state actors have a wide variety of goals, interests and approaches. Given this heterogeneity, it can be difficult to make broad generalisations about non-state actors as a category. Non-state actors are, by their very nature, not confined to state boundaries or jurisdictions, even if some primarily operate on a national or subnational level. #### Examples of Non-State Actors While non-state actors around the world are hard to classify, looking at some of them through a geographic lens can provide insight into some region-specific trends. For instance, in the Global South, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) frequently engage in issues related to development, human rights, and social justice. In the Global North, NGOs are often involved in issues such as environmental campaigns, consumer rights, and child protection, amongst many other causes. Other actors such as the African Union, the Arab League, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) focus essentially on promoting regional integration, economic development, and political stability in the Global South. NGOs such as Oxfam, Amnesty International, and Human Rights Watch are also active in the Global South. Major NGOs headquartered in the Global North, like Oxfam, Amnesty International, Greenpeace and Doctors Without Borders have a global focus, working across national boundaries to advance human rights, environmental protection, social justice and other causes worldwide. Other NGOs are more locally or nationally focused, like the Australian Marine Conservation Society, which focuses specifically on protecting marine wildlife in Australia, or the Trussell Trust, which aims to support the poor in the United Kingdom. Some key defining features still separate states from non-state actors, and so the conceptual distinction between states and non-state actors remains. But in practice, states have to share authority, sovereignty, and decision-making power with these new entities. The lines get blurred around who is setting agendas, making rules, and wielding influence. The 21st century is set to revolve around such a multipolar, multi-level world order. #### Reasons for the Rise of Non-State Actors The growth and rise of non-state actors can be attributed to several factors. Key amongst these are globalisation, democratisation, and the increasing importance of civil society. Globalisation processes have been of prime importance in that change. As global interactions intensified, non-state actors have been able to leverage cross-border resources and networks to influence multiple spheres of society, both within and outside of national boundaries. The increasing flows of information, ideas, people and capital across national boundaries have empowered non-state actors to address issues and mobilise support globally. Globalisation has thus been a catalyst for their activities, opening them to new opportunities. Additionally, the democratisation of many states - transitions from authoritarian rule to more democratic, participatory systems - has created more political space for non-state actors to emerge and influence policy. The rise of multi-level governance has provided more access points for non-state actors to engage across local, national and global levels. Overall, collaboration between state and non-state actors has given the latter more responsibility in public services and policy. The privatisation and outsourcing of formerly governmental functions have also expanded the role of non-state actors in society and the economy. These evolving models of governance have led to greater recognition of the importance of civil society in advancing social justice, human rights and sustainable development. Other key factors include technological change, as the internet, social media and digital tools have enabled non-state actors to organise, mobilise and exert influence on a much larger scale. Similarly, the global ideological shift away from isolationism as well as the rise of neoliberal ideology emphasising privatisation, free markets and reductions in state power have all fostered conditions for non-state actors to assume greater roles. To conclude, the distinction between state and non-state actors is becoming increasingly blurred in the contemporary world. Non-state actors play an important role in promoting social justice, human rights, and sustainable development. Examples of non-state actors in the Global South and Global North include NGOs, civil society organisations, and multinational corporations. The growth and rise of non-state actors can be mostly attributed to globalisation, democratisation, and the increasing importance of civil society. ## Subtopic 2: Multinational Corporations - Multinational corporations (MNCs) have emerged as immense economic and political forces on the world stage over the course of the 20th and 21st centuries. These companies have accompanied the rise of global exchanges, operating across multiple countries with global production, distribution, and mark Multinational corporations (MNCs), also known as transnational corporations (TNCs), are companies that operate in more than one country. These corporations have become increasingly important and powerful in the global economy. Many of them have huge resources that are greater than some countries’ gross national income, making them more powerful than some nation-states. By their very nature, multinational corporations have a significant impact on the global economy, which raises several issues and concerns. > Companies like Google, Microsoft, Amazon, Walmart, Apple or Shell are examples of MNCs with significant resources. As an example, had it been a country, Walmart's revenue would rank 23rd in terms of GDP in 2023, ahead of wealthy countries such as Sweden. #### Characteristics of Multinational Corporations Operating in multiple countries, with subsidiaries and affiliates located around the world, MNCs have a global reach in terms of their production, marketing, and distribution activities. They are typically large, well-funded, and have significant resources at their disposal, which gives them a competitive advantage in the global marketplace. Specifically, their global presence allows MNCs to access larger consumer markets, take advantage of lower production costs internationally, optimise their tax burdens across regions, achieve greater economies of scale, leverage their financial strength, and transfer knowledge easily across geographies. These factors combine to maximise revenue opportunities for MNCs while minimising costs, allowing them to outperform competitors. The nature of MNCs is characterised by their ability to harness technology, capital, and expertise across borders to create value for their shareholders. They often have a decentralised organisational structure with subsidiaries in different countries, which allows them to adapt to local market conditions and regulatory environments. MNCs also invest heavily in research and development to create new products and services, and to improve their existing ones. Generally, the nature of MNCs is complex and multifaceted, with both positive and negative aspects to their operations and impact on society. #### Impacts of Multinational Corporations MNCs have been responsible for a significant amount of job creation, technological innovation, and economic growth. MNCs have also played a role in the globalisation of the world economy, helping to create a more interconnected and interdependent global system. Countries can benefit from specialisation and investment driven by the rise of MNCs. For example, China’s economy has benefited from MNC manufacturing facilities on its territory. MNCs can also foster cultural exchange and the transfer of knowledge and skills across borders. As automotive manufacturers like Ford, GM, and Toyota have expanded globally, they have built factories, offices, and R&D centres around the world. This facilitates cultural exchange between employees from different countries who come together and collaborate at these facilities. For example, American car engineers might be stationed at a new plant in Mexico, learning from local workers while also sharing their expertise. However, MNCs have also been criticised for their negative impact on the environment, workers’ rights, and the social and economic development of host countries. This is particularly true of some MNCs’ activities in the Global South. An example is Shell’s operation in the petroleum and oil extraction sector in Nigeria, where critics have highlighted environmental, human rights and accountability issues for a number of years. Some critics argue that MNCs exploit labour in developing countries, engage in unfair trade practices, and avoid paying taxes by exploiting loopholes in international tax laws. MNCs are also held responsible for contributing to environmental degradation and climate change through their production and distribution activities. One of the main issues raised about multinational corporations is their impact on the environment. Many MNCs have been accused of contributing to environmental damage and degradation, through activities such as deforestation, pollution, and the depletion of natural resources. Another issue is their impact on workers’ rights. MNCs have been accused of exploiting workers in developing countries by paying low wages, providing poor working conditions, and violating labour laws. By taking advantage of the weak institutions in low-income countries, many MNCs have been accused of discriminatory practices, treating their workers differently from other workers based in the Global North. MNCs are also often accused of contributing to the social and economic inequality of host countries, by exacerbating the gap between the rich and the poor. > For example, Foxconn, which manufactures smartphones and other electronics in China for companies like Apple, has faced widespread criticism and media exposure over poor working conditions and labor abuses in its factories. These included long hours, low wages, stressful quotas, and the controversial use of student interns as labor. This reflects the broader issue with multinational corporations taking advantage of weak institutions in developing countries to employ exploitative practices that boost profits. To conclude, MNCs are more than just large and economically powerful companies - they have become immense global forces in their own right. With resources, global supply chains, and influence exceeding that of many nation-states, multinational corporations have emerged as non-state actors that can rival countries on the world stage. Their decisions and actions can shape policies, societies, and lives in profound ways. This important power raises serious questions about the legitimacy and accountability of MNCs compared to democratic governments. While they have had a significant impact on the global economy, they have also been criticised for their negative impact on the environment, workers’ rights, and the social and economic development of host countries. This has fueled ongoing debates around the appropriate role and regulation of MNCs, with some arguing for stronger accountability mechanisms and international frameworks to promote responsible corporate behaviour in line with human rights norms and sustainable development goals. ## Subtopic 3: Non-State Actors in Politics - From lobbyists to ‘vigilantes’, non-state groups are reshaping modern politics. Their influence raises vital questions. Do they enhance democracy by mobilising citizens in new ways outside of formal democratic processes? Or do they undermine governance by avoiding the legitimacy of electoral process Politics is a complex set of activities that involves the interaction of various actors, including state and non-state actors. Non-state actors, such as sub-state actors, vigilantes, pressure groups and social movements have become increasingly important in shaping political outcomes. These actors can influence policy decisions at the highest level and mobilise wide support for their causes. The role of non-state actors in politics, particularly that of vigilantes, lobbyists, and pressure groups, is not without controversies. #### Sub-state Actors Subnational actors are governing entities within a country to which the national government has delegated some level of policy-making authority. They include different levels of government such as provinces, regions, districts or cities. They cannot be described as _non-state_ actors, as their activities are largely dependent on the scope and form of the state’s delegation of power. But they also have their own agendas and interests outside of the state framework, thus making them unfit for the _state_ actor category. In recent decades, subnational actors have gained more prominence in policy areas traditionally controlled by national governments. This reflects a broader shift toward decentralisation and multi-level governance, especially in the Global North. Several factors are driving this. Global issues like climate change are directly affecting cities, states, and regions, giving them stronger incentives to develop targeted policies. For example, many cities are autonomously creating climate action plans to mitigate heat risks and adapt infrastructure. Subnational bodies can sometimes enact such policies faster than national governments, spurring innovation and bottom-up pressure for national action. This is mostly due to the existence of local grassroots movements on issues like the environment. This public pressure can empower local politicians to lead their own policies. Furthermore, national governments have increasingly used subnational jurisdictions to pilot policy experiments before wider implementation. Generally speaking, the sub-state level has been much more integrated into the political activity of most political centres in the world, with new transnational networks between cities, states, and regions helping to diffuse best practices globally. The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group is an example of such a network. The European Union’s Committee of the Regions also shows the willingness of state actors and supranational organisations to institutionalise such subnational voices. Arguably, the empowerment of sub-state actors in politics can benefit states and make them more efficient in the pursuit of their goals. However, for state actors, it also raises the question of control: how much autonomy subnational actors should have before their agendas begin to conflict with national interests and undermine state control? #### Interest groups Lobbyists Lobbyists are non-state actors who represent the interests of various interest groups, such as corporations, unions, and advocacy groups. Lobbyists seek to directly influence government policy decisions from the inside by providing information, resources, and other forms of support to policymakers to make laws that favour their cause or interest. Lobbyists may also engage in direct advocacy, by organising rallies, or indirect advocacy, through media campaigns for instance. Lobbying can be a powerful force in politics, particularly in countries where the political system is open to outside influence. It can provide a means for groups and corporations to actively advocate for their needs when they might otherwise be ignored. However, unchecked lobbying has led to controversial situations in the past. Indeed, lobby interests have sometimes gone above the voices of citizens because of their important influence and spending. The National Rifle Association in the United States stands as a prime example. For years, advocates of stronger gun control in the US have criticised the outsized role of NRA lobbying in stagnating gun laws, despite public opinion favouring some new restrictions. More direct cases of corruption have occurred and remain a risk for democratic politics. For instance, in 2022, the Qatargate scandal in the EU exposed illicit lobbying channels involving Qatar bribing members of the European Parliament to influence policies in favour of Qatar. This example goes to show the existence of loopholes in transparency frameworks in certain political institutions. Pressure Groups and Social Movements Social movements and pressure groups both fall under the general category of outsider-oriented interest groups, in contrast to insider lobby groups. They try to influence policy indirectly by swaying public opinion and mobilising grassroots actions like protests. Pressure groups are structured non-state groups that seek to influence policy decisions from the outside, through advocacy and activism. They may represent a wide range of interests, such as environmental protection, human rights, or labour rights. Pressure groups seek to mobilise public support for their causes, using tactics such as protests, petitions, and social media campaigns. Pressure groups can be a powerful force in politics, particularly when they are able to mobilise large numbers of people and get public support on their side. Social movements are a form of collective action that seeks to bring about social, political, or economic change. They tend to arise spontaneously and be driven by a sense of urgency and passion around an issue. They are, at least initially, less structured and operate outside of formal political systems. Social movements are characterised by their diversity, as they often involve individuals from different backgrounds, cultures, and ideologies. They are also characterised by their fluidity, as they can change and evolve over time in response to changing circumstances. They are often driven by a sense of injustice, inequality, or oppression and seek to address these issues through various means, such as protest, advocacy, and rallies. Social movements can be seen as a response to the failures of the political system to address the needs of some sections of society, especially marginalised groups. The impact of social movements on society is frequently seen as positive because they often bring about changes which otherwise would not happen through formal political channels alone - or not as fast. #### Historical Impact of Social Movements and Pressure Groups Social movements and pressure groups have often overlapped in their goals over the course of their individual histories. Historically, many impactful social movements like civil rights, women's suffrage, and LGBTQ+ rights later gave rise to insider pressure groups lobbying for policy gains. Groups like Greenpeace also blend policy lobbying with social movement-style public mobilisation. Multiple movements have shown their ability to spur change in local and even global politics, but they often encountered challenges or even repression, sometimes failing in their goals. Social movements have played a crucial historical role in driving social change, especially for marginalised groups like women, minorities, and LGBTQ+ people. They have also been instrumental in challenging oppressive systems of power, such as colonialism, apartheid, and dictatorships. They have also helped to create more democratic and inclusive societies by promoting the values of equality, justice, and human rights. Many social movements have been at the forefront of political activism against discrimination of all kinds and in the pursuit of human rights and equality. From the women's suffrage movements in the world to civil rights movements led by personalities such as Martin Luther King Jr, the struggle against oppressive systems of dictatorship and colonisation, examples are manyfold. While social movements can create change, mobilising the public into collective action comes with challenges. Authorities tend to respond to protests with force, and sometimes outright repression, as occurred in China's violent 1989 suppression of Tiananmen Square activists. Internal divisions may also weaken movements. This was the case over the course of the French Yellow Vests protests, with internal division gradually undermining the movement’s momentum. Further, as social movements represent specific partisan agendas, they tend to draw criticism from ideological opponents. For instance, the German far-left militant group Red Army Faction, which grew out of the student protest movements of the 1960s, turned to increasingly extreme tactics like bombings and assassinations in the 1970s after their calls for revolutionary change went unheeded through peaceful protests alone and in the face of intense government repression of the student movements. Though capable of driving reform, social movements also carry risks of provoking unintended harm, whether from violent crackdowns, internal dysfunction, or controversial extremist tactics. #### The Vigilante The vigilante is a non-state actor that operates outside of the legal framework. Vigilantes are individuals or groups that take it upon themselves to enforce the law, often through violent means. Vigilantism is often associated with crime, terrorism, and political instability. Vigilantes may be motivated by a desire to protect their business, their communities or to challenge the authority of the state. When their activities involve the use of violence or intimidation, their actions are often seen as a threat to the rule of law and can lead to further violence and instability. ___ Non-state actors such as vigilantes, lobbyists, and pressure groups have become increasingly important in shaping political outcomes. Vigilantes, while often seen as a threat to the rule of law, can also be seen as a response to the failure of the state to provide security for their own people. Lobbyists, while often criticised for their influence on policy decisions, can also provide valuable information and resources to lawmakers. Pressure groups, while sometimes seen as a nuisance, can also be a powerful force for positive change in society. As such, it is important to understand the role of non-state stakeholders in politics and to ensure that their actions are in line with democratic values and respect for human rights. ## Subtopic 4: Non-State Armed Groups - Various armed non-state actors undermine state governance through the use of violence, often illegally but occasionally through legal means. Though their motives and ideologies differ, they have one thing in common: they often disrupt societies or generate major security challenges. Ethnic militias #### Political Insurgents Political insurgents are armed groups that use violence to oppose a government or regime in power. Their goal is usually to overthrow the existing government and take control themselves. Political insurgents often arise when a significant portion of the population feels marginalised or oppressed by the ruling government, as was the case in Colombia where the FARC rebels fought the government for decades, or in Afghanistan with the Taliban insurgency against the Afghan government. Prolonged insurgencies can destabilise entire regions, undermine legitimate governance, and inflict major economic costs. #### Terrorists and Ideological Extremists Terrorists and Ideological Extremists use violence to spread fear and advance an ideological or political agenda. They often target civilians and carry out dramatic attacks like bombings, shootings, hijackings etc. Widely known terrorist organisations are  Al Qaeda, which carried out the 9/11 attacks, and ISIS, which imposed its extremist vision of Islam through brutal violence in Iraq and Syria, and also carried out many terrorist attacks on Western soil. While Islamist terrorism has been extremely prominent in recent decades, terrorism can stem from other extremist ideologies as well, such as white supremacy. For example, the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings in New Zealand were conducted by a white supremacist extremist, showing that terrorism threats can arise from a range of radical ideologies that fundamentally oppose existing societies. Regardless of the ideological motivation, terrorists attempt to create chaos and amplify divisions by targeting civilians to advance their goals. Their extreme tactics and radical ideologies are supposed to contribute to divisions in society and inflame tensions between different groups, often on the basis of religion or ethnicity. #### Warlords and Marauders Ethnic Militias are armed groups organised along ethnic lines to defend their ethnic group's interests. They are common where ethnic tensions exist and there is a lack of trust in the state to defend their group. Ethnic militias form to protect their group interests but can also commit atrocities against other groups, becoming perpetrators of ethnic violence themselves. The presence of armed ethnic militias is an indicator of grave tensions between identity groups and a weak state unable to maintain security. Examples include the anti-Tutsi militias during the Rwandan genocide, and the anti-Muslim Bodu Bala Sena in Myanmar. #### Transnational Criminal Organizations Transnational Criminal Organizations use violence in the pursuit of profit through illicit activities. They traffic drugs, weapons, people etc across national borders. Examples are the Mexican drug cartels like Los Zetas and the Sinaloa Cartel, and mafia organisations like the Italian Cosa Nostra. Their activities undermine governance and the rule of law. Transnational criminal groups exploit weak institutions and porous borders to establish their illicit networks globally. They engage in money laundering and corruption to protect their activities, infiltrating governments and security forces thanks to their reach. Transnational organised crime threatens development, public health and the legal economy, costing countries billions in lost revenue. #### Private Security Companies Private Security Companies, or PSCs, are legal commercial organisations that provide security services, either domestically or internationally. Examples include companies like Blackwater (now Academi) that provided security services during the Iraq war. The key feature that distinguishes private security companies from other non-state armed groups is their legality: they are not criminal and are, supposedly, not politically motivated either. They are commercial companies which are usually appointed by governments or organisations for their expertise. Oftentimes, those who appoint them seek well-trained personnel whose services they can use to externalise costs and detach responsibility from the state (in the case of appointment by states). They provide defensive services to clients. However, as was reported in the case of the US PSC Blackwater in Iraq, there are risks of poor conduct, human rights abuses, and companies exceeding their mandated activities. Private military contractors give states more flexibility in projecting force abroad, but lack accountability compared to national forces. The privatised nature of security raises^[[1]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40802-015-0017-y) issues of transparency, oversight and adherence to international norms when operating in conflict zones. ## Subtopic 5: The Role of Non-State Actors in Failed States - Failed states create a substantial threat to their own populations, and in many instances to global security and stability. The restoration of such states demands a long-term commitment and a comprehensive approach that focuses on rebuilding institutions, promoting economic development, establishing Failing or failed states are a growing issue in the world today and pose a significant threat to global security and stability. A failed state is defined as a state that has lost the ability to provide basic services such as security, justice, and governance to its citizens. These states are characterised by weak or non-existent institutions, widespread corruption, and a lack of economic development. The challenges of reviving failing or failed states and the strategies that can be used to address these challenges are complex. #### Challenges of Reviving Failing or Failed States Reviving a failing or failed state is a complex and difficult task that requires long-term commitment and significant resources. One of the main challenges is the lack of functioning institutions that can provide basic services to the population. This often requires building or rebuilding institutions from scratch, which can be a slow and difficult process. Once a state fails and its institutions collapse because of war, conflict, a natural disaster, or any other reason, bringing the country back as a functioning state can be extremely challenging.^[[2]](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7864/j.ctvbd8j54) One major challenge is the lack of trust between the state and the population, which can make it difficult to implement reforms and build consensus around a common vision for the future. Also, the presence of armed groups and other non-state actors can make it difficult to re-establish security and stability in the country, which is a necessary condition for rebuilding state institutions and promoting economic development. #### Failed States To revive failing or failed states, a comprehensive approach is required, which addresses the root causes of the problem. This approach must focus on building effective institutions, promoting economic development, and establishing security and stability in the country. The following strategies can be used to achieve these objectives: •**Building Effective Institutions:** This requires establishing strong and accountable institutions that can provide basic services to the population, such as security, justice, and governance. This can be done through capacity-building programs, training, and technical assistance. •**Promoting Economic Development:** Economic development is crucial for reviving failing or failed states. This requires creating an enabling environment for businesses to thrive, promoting trade and investment, and investing in infrastructure development. •**Establishing Security and Stability:** This requires addressing the root causes of conflict and violence, such as poverty, inequality, and political exclusion. This can be done through conflict resolution efforts, peacebuilding programmes, and security sector reforms. •**Engaging Civil Society:** Civil society plays a crucial role in promoting democracy, accountability, and transparency. Engaging civil society can help to rebuild trust between the state and the population and promote social cohesion. ## Sources and further reading - [State and Non-State Actors in Global Politics](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PEyat4SEiBg) — Korczyk, P. Korczyk's Class, 2020 - [Non-State Actors](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-8kD_RmtlsQ) — Zerbe, N. 2019 - [Non-State Actors in Global Politics: Understanding Their Role and Challenges](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4eYe-cqHjK0) — Zerbe, N. 2023 - [What is a multinational?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vfui9l2NfIc) — BBC Learning English, 2021 - [Who are the actors in international law? An animated explainer](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1pO7ECdbs1Y) — BBC Learning English, 2021 - [Political Economy of Institutions and Development- 8.2. Sub State Actors: Big Business](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6XqR2XQVOIk) — Leiden Learning & Innovation Centre, 2015 - [Daron Acemoglu on Why Nations Fail](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2z5RAZlv2UQ&t) — Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2012 - [Why Do Young People Get Involved in Social Movements?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zySKwvQCpXE) — National Geographic, 2018 - [Interest Groups](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOvBA7oIIgc) — Crash Course, 2015 - [How Lobbying Became A $3.5 Billion Industry](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZVfTCBUkgM) — CNBC, 2020 - [This Is How To Hire Your Own D.C. Lobbyist](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MfZB3BrjI74) — VICE News, 2019 - [The US Elections Explained: Lobbying](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FYHgfwJnBY) — London School of Economics and Political Science, 2016 - [Mexican Vigilantes Stand Up Against Crime](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8XiSnCt9fDc) — VICE, 2013 - [The Global Illicit Economy: Trajectories of Transnational Organized Crime](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ta41360XanE) — Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 2021 - [American Terror: The Military’s Problem With Extremism in the Ranks](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lVkBVExuXSQ) — VICE News, 2022 - [What is Hamas? Terrorism expert explains what the group is fighting for](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZloZA_HXUA) — Associated Press, 2023 - [Warlords of Tripoli](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MwHLXNj7fXE) — VICE, 2014 - [People Are Hiring Private Police Squads in Detroit](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pt6hnabnkU) — VICE News, 2019 - [Private Security in South Africa Comes at a Cost](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5XdaviEIqgk) — VICE News, 2022 - [How The Private Military Industry Went Global](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17Scy1rBb4U) — CNBC, 2020 - [Fragile States Index](https://fragilestatesindex.org/) — The Fund for Peace - [OECD-UNSD Multinational Enterprise Information Platform](https://www.oecd.org/sdd/its/mne-platform.htm) — Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - [Non-state actors in global governance: Three faces of power](https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/85112/1/2003-04_online.pdf) — Arts, B. 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Istituto Affari Internazionali, 2017 - [Global governance — the rise of non-state actors](https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/global-governance) — European Environment Agency, 2011 - [The Role of Sub-state and Nonstate Actors in International Climate Processes](https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2018-11-28-non-state-sctors-climate-synthesis-hale-final.pdf) — Hale, T. Chatham House, 2018 - [Proliferation of Armed Non-State Actors in the Sahel: Evidence of State Failure?](https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/proliferation-armed-non-state-actors-sahel-evidence-state-failure-29329) — Moderan, O. Institute for International Political Studies, 2021 - [A New Role for Non-State Actors in Egyptian Policymaking](https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/90781) — Alaa Abdel-Moneim, M. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2023 - [Global Goliaths: Multinational Corporations in the 21st Century Economy](https://www.brookings.edu/articles/multinational-corporations-in-the-21st-century/) — Fritz Foley, C., Hines Jr., J. R. and Wessel, D. Brookings, 2021 - [Multinational enterprises in the global economy: Heavily discussed, hardly measured](https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/multinational-enterprises-global-economy-heavily-discussed-hardly-measured) — De Backer, K., Miroudot, S. and Rigo, D. Centre for Economic Policy Research, 2019 - [Lobbying in the 21st Century: Transparency, Integrity and Access](https://www.oecd.org/corruption-integrity/reports/lobbying-in-the-21st-century-c6d8eff8-en.html) — Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2021 - [Fighting Insurgency With Politics: The Case of Bihar](https://carnegieendowment.org/2016/06/09/fighting-insurgency-with-politics-case-of-bihar-pub-63769) — Kleinfeld, R. and Majeed, R. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2016 - [The Political Counter-Insurgent](https://www.wired.com/2008/04/the-political-c/) — Axe, D. Wired, 2008 - [Pushed to Extremes: Domestic Terrorism amid Polarization and Protest](https://www.csis.org/analysis/pushed-extremes-domestic-terrorism-amid-polarization-and-protest) — Doxsee, C. et al. Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2022 - [Transnational organized crime: A threat to global public goods](https://www.sipri.org/commentary/topical-backgrounder/2022/transnational-organized-crime-threat-global-public-goods) — Caparini, M. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2022 - [The Role of Private Security Companies in International Security](https://www.e-ir.info/2008/08/06/the-role-of-private-security-companies-in-international-security/) — Kinsey, C. E-International Relations, 2008 - [Clarifying the role of non-state actors in education](https://www.unesco.org/en/right-education/non-state-actors) — Unesco, 2023 - [Non-State actors](https://www.who.int/europe/about-us/partnerships/partners/non-state-actors) — World Health Organization - [Impacts of non-state actors](https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/foresight/topic/increasing-influence-new-governing-systems/non-state-actors-impacts-all-level-governance_en) — European Commission, 2020 - [The Role of Non-State Actors in the Regulatory Reforms outside the EU](https://fsr.eui.eu/wp-content/uploads/150612Stasi.pdf) — European University Institute - [Multinational Corporation: Definition, How It Works, Four Types](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/multinationalcorporation.asp) — Chen, J. Investopedia, 2023 - [Interest group](https://www.britannica.com/topic/interest-group) — Thomas, S. C. Britannica, 2023 - [Why Lobbying Is Legal and Important in the U.S](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/043015/why-lobbying-legal-and-important-us.asp) — Weiser, D. Investopedia, 2023 - [Pressure Groups](https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/politics/uk-politics/pressure-groups/) — StudySmarter - [Terrorism vs. Extremism: Are They Linked?](https://www.aucegypt.edu/news/stories/terrorism-vs-extremism-are-they-linked) — The American University in Cairo - [Failed state](https://www.britannica.com/topic/failed-state) — Barma, N. H. Britannica, 2023 - [Rise of Non State Actors](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XHSgRUxqo0Y) — Fair, C. Centre for Land Warfare Studies, 2020 - [Levelling Up: Sub-State Actors as Global Players](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AKgL1oRErdg) — Munich Security Conference, 2023 - [Present & Future Trajectories of Terrorist Groups and Armed Non-State Actors in Africa](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AZzaHTyOtVo) — Woodrow Wilson Center, 2015 - [The transformational power of multinational business](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XLdiBNYGd-Y) — Mayer, C. TEDx Talks, 2015 - [What's the role of multinational companies in fuelling conflicts?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-ZV43gwsMo) — Al Jazeera, 2021 - [Citizen Lobbying: How Your Skills Can Fix Democracy](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqNf2OPdu8c) — Alemanno, A. TEDx Talks, 2016 - [The realities of lobbying -- a look beyond the smoke and mirrors](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8bbzYjLEvE) — Laptev, M. TEDx Talks, 2014 - [The deadly ideology behind many far-right terrorist attacks](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kqf5hgRwqw) — Mudde, C. Deutsche Welle, 2022 - [Why nations fail](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsZDlBU36n0) — Robinson, J. TEDx Talks, 2014 - [Failed States - and How Not to Fix Them](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMXXJqvMdk4) — Stewart, R. Yale University, 2018 ## About the author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby Francis Jegede is an experienced academic with over 3 decades in academia in the UK Higher Education sector. He is an Associate Professor at the University of Derby, focusing his research and teaching on diplomacy, conflict resolution, negotiations, terrorism, and political economy of violence. He has held several senior academic positions and developed programs in his disciplines. Passionate about enhancing the student experience, he provides work-based learning opportunities including organising educational field trips to Europe, Africa, and Asia. Over the course of his career, Francis has developed academic links with a number of national and international institutions and organisations including the United Nations Office in Geneva. --- # Overview of Globalisation: Integration and Division URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/overview-of-globalisation-integration-and-division Published: 2024-06-12 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/francis-jegede-university-of-derby) Category: International Relations Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Globalisation refers to the increasing integration of countries and peoples worldwide through advances in technology, transportation, and communication. While global exchange originated thousands of years ago, its pace has accelerated greatly since the late 19th century. Globalisation has enabled unprecedented economic growth through trade and investment, facilitated by multinational corporations and innovations like the internet. It has also led to the exchange of ideas, culture, and people across borders. ## Summary - Globalisation has increased trade and cultural exchanges but caused inequality. - Impacts include the rise of multinational companies, climate change, and disease spread. - Anti-globalisation movements oppose corporate power and cultural loss. ## Subtopic 1: Globalisation – A brief overview - Globalisation refers to the increasing integration of countries and peoples worldwide through advances in technology, transportation, and communication. While global exchange originated thousands of years ago, its pace has accelerated greatly since the late 19th century. Globalisation has enabled un #### Origins and Evolution of Globalisation Globalisation refers to the process of increasing interconnectedness between individuals, businesses, and countries across the world. This phenomenon has been driven by advancements in technology, transportation, and communication, which made it easier for people and goods to move across borders. Globalisation impacts every aspect of our lives, including the economy, culture, and politics. It has changed the way we work, play, travel and eat. All in all, it has changed how we conduct our lives. > Whether directly or indirectly, globalisation affects us all. It is a process that drives social, political, and economic changes that transform our modern society. While discussions of globalisation often focus on developments since the 1980s, many facets of global integration have much earlier origins. The exchange of ideas, beliefs and traditions between societies dates back thousands of years to ancient trade routes and empires, exemplifying early cultural and religious globalisation. The cross-border spread of technological innovations such as the printing press truly began to accelerate in the 15th century. Political convergence emerged regionally through imperial administration and legal systems. Rudimentary economic globalisation began in the 16th century as European trading companies and colonial plantations integrated international markets. However, most scholars argue that the pace and scale of globalisation have increased significantly since the late 19th century, when industrialisation, rapid transportation, mass communications and political shifts opened up borders. This enabled unprecedented mobility of money, goods, people and information around the world. While certain processes of globalisation have been in motion for thousands of years, the current era is characterised by the intensity, speed and breadth of global flows. Steger periodizes^[[1]](https://academic.oup.com/book/46716) four great eras of globalisation, each marked by different "social formations," which refer to the prevailing forms of global connectivity. These four eras are, chronologically: **• Prehistoric** (pre-3500 BCE) - early human migration and dispersion across continents **• Premodern** (3500 BCE - 1500 CE) - emergence of ancient empires and trade routes **• Early Modern** (1500-1750) - rise of European colonialism and capitalist world system **• Modern** (1750-1980s) - industrialisation and rapid technological advances However, Steger argues the world has entered a new era of globalisation since the 1980s. He calls it the “great convergence”. Indeed, the current era is characterised by different people and societies coming together and connecting more rapidly and intensely than ever before. The scale and intensity of contemporary globalisation are without historical precedent. A few key developments have been largely responsible for continuing to drive global integration. The aftermath of industrialisation linked regions through trade networks. Advances in transportation technologies, like air travel and container shipping, enabled greater movement of people and goods over greater distances and at higher speeds. Policies promoting trade liberalisation, tariff reductions and free trade agreements helped to further break down national barriers. The information technology revolution, especially the rapid spread of the internet, mobile phones and digital communications, has also intensified globalisation. Together, these factors have compressed time and space to generate unprecedented levels of global interconnection. #### Types of globalisation The most commonly discussed and visible types of globalisation, frequently mentioned in both media and political discourse, are: **• Economic Globalisation** - integration of national economies through trade, investment, finance, migration, and corporate reach across borders. **• Political Globalisation** - spread of political ideologies, policies, institutions, and agreements through intergovernmental organisations like the UN or the WTO. **• Cultural Globalisation** - exchange of cultural ideas, traditions, and media through increased intercultural contacts. Cultural globalisation leads to cultural diffusion and influences beyond national borders. **• Technological Globalisation**- cross-border transfer of knowledge, methods, and innovations, enabled by communication technologies. **• Ecological Globalisation** - environmental interdependence through climate change, pollution, biodiversity loss. These dimensions are often cited by scholars as the essential aspects of the globalisation process. However, they also have sub-branches and more specific dimensions that may be a little less obvious at first glance. For instance, scholars have analysed the global spread of diseases, health risks, and wellness trends as an aspect of health globalisation. The emergence of international institutions, military alliances, and arms proliferation falls under military globalisation. The integration of financial systems through trade, banking, and investment markets is studied as financial globalisation. Other sub-branches look at the worldwide spread of religions, languages, innovations, Western consumer culture, and even criminal networks. The nuances are endless, but these examples demonstrate the diverse sub-types and spheres of activity that exhibit globalised patterns. #### Major impacts of globalisation Globalisation has had a major impact on the world economy. The increasing interconnectedness of countries has led to the growth of international trade and investment, with companies and states investing and doing business across borders.  This led to the creation of new markets and opportunities for businesses and individuals. Globalisation has also enabled the creation of multinational companies and the development of new products and services. For example, between 2000 and 2022, global merchandise exports grew^[[2]](https://www.statista.com/statistics/264682/worldwide-export-volume-in-the-trade-since-1950/) from $6.4 trillion to over $24.5 trillion. This shows a significant increase in the growth of global trade. During a similar period, China's exports alone increased^[[3]](https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/CHN/china/exports) from $249 billion to over $3.5 trillion. In 2021, there were over 60,000 multinational corporations^[[4]](https://espace-mondial-atlas.sciencespo.fr/en/topic-strategies-of-transnational-actors/article-3A11-EN-multinational-corporations.html) (MNCs) operating worldwide. These global companies’ operations cover different sectors of the economy, such as technology, retail, financial services, automobile, etc. Notable examples of these multinational companies include Apple, Microsoft, Amazon, Coca-Cola, Toyota, Samsung, IBM, Adidas, to name just a few out of thousands. Through these and other multinational companies, the development and distribution of innovative products and services across borders has grown rapidly. For example, because of globalisation, companies like Apple and Samsung have been able to introduce advanced smartphones that have become available and sold worldwide. Similarly, globalisation has enabled the development and expansion of e-commerce platforms, with companies such as Amazon, Alibaba, and Shopify, creating and expanding online shopping opportunities for people around the world. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter (now known as X), and Instagram have further connected people around the world. Through these platforms, people around the world are now able to communicate easily and share information instantly. These examples and statistics show how global trade, the presence of multinational companies, and the introduction of new products and services have been integral to the impacts of globalisation. > Huntington, an American social scientist, argued that conflicts in the post-Cold War world would be mainly between civilisations with fundamentally different cultures and values. For example, he predicted growing conflict between Western and Islamic civilisations due to their different worldviews on issues such as the role of religion in society. Huntington suggested that with the end of the Cold War, which had divided the world into communist and capitalist camps, conflicts would now arise over cultural and religious differences rather than just ideology and economics. He believed that civilisations would be the new fault lines along which divisions and conflicts would emerge, as fundamental differences in values and social structures between them would be difficult or even impossible to reconcile through compromise or integration. Since its publication, his view has been at the centre of both academic and political debate. Globalisation has also profoundly shaped culture and identity. Increased migration and travel between countries have accelerated the exchange of ideas, traditions, and beliefs. This cultural exchange has led grew^[[5]](https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=1565) to more shared experiences and perspectives, blending together local cultural elements with Western consumer culture to create an emerging global culture. However, some argue^[[6]](https://books.google.it/books/about/Capitalism_in_the_Age_of_Globalization.html?id=m4eVN23FjMcC&redir_esc=y) this global culture is defined largely by Western traditions, norms and consumption patterns. The concern is that the diverse local and indigenous cultures may disappear over time through cultural homogenisation and Americanisation. Another pessimistic view of multicultural encounters is that of a "clash of civilisations", as explained by Huntington in his 1996 book of the same name. Additionally, globalisation has fueled growing economic inequality between nations. While this new interconnected world has generally benefited industrialised countries of the 'Global North' like the United States and Europe, developing countries of the 'Global South' have often been left behind. However, inequality has also risen within countries, even wealthy ones, as the gains of globalisation have disproportionately affected certain groups.  For example, in the US, urban skilled workers have prospered from trade and outsourcing while rural unskilled workers and manufacturing communities suffered job losses. As a result of globalisation, the outsourcing of jobs and the import of cheaper goods from developing countries have resulted in the decline of local industries and the loss of jobs in such places. > "Global North" and "Global South" are the terms used to refer to a divided world with the economically developed, industrialised countries located in the northern hemisphere (North America, Europe, and parts of Asia) and the less economically developed low-income countries located in the southern hemisphere (Africa, most of Asia, and Latin America). These terms are conceptual: the line between the South and the North has mostly been drawn by Western intellectuals, such as former German chancellor Willy Brandt who famously represented the North-South division with the Brandt Line. In addition to economic effects, globalisation has profoundly impacted the environment and health on a global scale. Globalised trade and travel have enabled the quicker spread of diseases across borders, as evidenced by the worldwide spread of HIV or COVID-19. Factors like increased human mobility and transportation of goods have facilitated the transmission of viruses across continents. At the same time, increased industrial activity, trade, transportation, and consumption contributed to issues like climate change, biodiversity loss, pollution, and resource depletion. It has been suggested that the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere has increased^[[7]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/) by about 47% since the pre-industrial era. This increase is primarily due to human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation. Average global temperatures are estimated to have risen^[[8]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/) by about 1.5 degrees Celsius since the late 19th century due to greenhouse gas emissions from industrial processes and transportation. For example, the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat and transportation is believed to be responsible for^[9] about 62% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2015. These environmental impacts in turn affect public health. In summary, globalisation is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that impacts virtually every aspect of our lives. While it has brought about many benefits, such as increased trade and investment and the spread of global culture, it also poses significant challenges, including income inequality, the decline of local industries, environmental issues, and the spread of diseases. Additionally, some view the spread of Western consumer culture under globalisation as detrimental to local traditions and identities. As globalisation continues to evolve, societies worldwide grapple with balancing its opportunities and costs. There are complex challenges ahead in managing this increasingly interconnected world. Diverse voices across academia, government, business and civil society are exploring different ideas to pull back some of the negative aspects of globalisation while optimising its positive consequences. ## Subtopic 2: The Interconnection of the World: Interdependence, convergence and the ‘death of distance’ - Interdependence, convergence, and the "death of distance" encapsulate increasing global interconnectedness. Interdependence means countries and peoples impact each other more through mutual reliance. Convergence points to the global adoption of similar policies and practices. The "death of distance" Interdependence, convergence and the 'death of distance' are three concepts that encapsulate how the world is becoming increasingly interconnected. These concepts are closely related and describe the changing nature of relationships between nations and individuals. Interdependence In the context of globalisation, interdependence is a concept that describes the interconnected and mutually dependent relationships between peoples, communities, regions, and countries in terms of economic, social, and political activities. There is no single universally accepted academic definition of interdependence. However, according to Keohane and Nye , ‘_Interdependence is a situation in which actors are mutually dependent on one another's actions. It refers to a variety of mechanisms through which the actions of states or other actors mutually influence one another_.’ Similarly, Bhagwati used^[[10]](https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/books/191/) the term interdependence, to refer to ‘_a variety of mechanisms through which the actions of states or other actors mutually influence one another_’. In the past, countries had more economic independence and were less affected by other nations' actions, although they still interacted through trade and diplomacy. In today's globalised world, countries are far more interdependent. For example, if a major oil-producing country suddenly cuts production, that decision will drive up oil prices worldwide, impacting other countries that rely on importing oil. Similarly, if a large economy like the United States or China devalues its currency, the ripple effects are felt across global markets. No single country can make major decisions in isolation anymore. This growing interdependence has led to a complex web of evolving relationships. Convergence The term 'convergence' refers to the idea that, over time, different regions or countries become more similar in various economic, social or cultural matters. While there is no single definition of convergence, academics have used the term to refer to the narrowing of differences in income, productivity and living standards between countries or regions. Convergence suggests^[[11]](https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c9589/c9589.pdf) that as globalisation progresses, economies and societies tend to adopt similar policies, technologies and practices, leading to increased similarities between nations. In essence, convergence refers to the process by which different technologies, industries, and markets are becoming increasingly interconnected. This convergence is driven by advances in technology that have enabled people and organisations to connect and collaborate across geographical boundaries easier than ever before. As a result, different industries and markets are growing, and new forms of collaboration are emerging. Moreover, cultural convergence is a significant aspect of this phenomenon, as ideas, values, and beliefs from various societies intertwine, influenced by global interconnectedness. However, convergence can also be perceived as an assimilation of liberal policies and the Western capitalist model worldwide, raising questions about the preservation of cultural diversity and local traditions. Yet convergence can equally be seen as an assimilation of liberal policies and the Western model of capitalism around the world. International organisations such as the World Trade Organisation and historical milestones such as the Bretton Woods Agreement have helped to create legal frameworks and conditions that have enabled global convergence. #### The Death of Distance The concept of the "death of distance" in relation to globalisation refers^[[12]](https://books.google.it/books/about/The_Death_of_Distance.html?id=6W_-8GvYgD0C&redir_esc=y) to the diminishing significance of physical distance in economic and social interactions due to advances in communication and transportation technologies. The term is used to describe the way in which technology has made it possible for people to connect and communicate across vast distances. As a result, geographical boundaries and physical distance matter less. Thanks to advancements in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), people can connect, collaborate and work together regardless of physical location. This shift was explored by Cairncross in "The Death of Distance" and continues to be examined today. > Advances in ICT have led to the creation of what is now termed the ‘information society’. The death of distance may also be a profound cause of the cultural convergence we are witnessing. The death of distance is not just about the ease of connection; it's a paradigm shift that challenges traditional notions of nationalism and isolationism.  This move towards cosmopolitanism is thus criticised by some conservative and nationalist voices as not only the death of distance, but also the death of identity. In recent years, this has led to the emergence of radical political theories and a reshaping of the political debate around the concept of identity in many cosmopolitan countries around the world. Interdependence, convergence, and the death of distance are thus closely related concepts. They all reflect the changing nature of relationships between nations and individuals. The increasing interdependence between different countries and organisations is driving convergence, which in turn is leading to the 'death of distance'. This has profound implications for the way we live and work. However, while these trends are evident, they are all met with resistance. Convergence and interdependence are often partial, while physical distance remains a reality in some cases. This complexity underscores the importance of viewing globalisation not as an absolute fact but as a process that interacts with various other processes and perspectives. Globalisation advances unevenly. While communication technologies and global markets expand interconnectedness, countervailing forces of nationalism, protectionism, and cultural distinctiveness also arise. The 'death of distance' is not monolithic, as geographic constraints persist based on infrastructure limitations or regulations on virtual activity. Nor is convergence uniformly embraced, as institutions and individuals may resist practices perceived as homogenising. To conclude, interdependence, convergence, and the 'death of distance' are three concepts that are reshaping the way we live and work. These concepts represent the increasing interconnectedness of our world, and how technology is making it easier for people to connect regardless of where they are located. As we continue to embrace these changes, we can expect to see new forms of collaboration and innovation emerge, and a more interconnected and interdependent world. A major challenge posed by ICTs and globalisation is the need to build a people-centred, inclusive, and sustainable society where everyone can create, access, use and share information and knowledge; and no one is left behind. ## Subtopic 3: Economic and Political Effects of Globalisation - Economically, globalisation has enabled growth through increased trade and investment. However, it has also led to uneven distribution of benefits, job losses in developed nations, and exploitation concerns. Politically, globalisation challenges state sovereignty in multiple ways. But it enables coo Globalisation is a complex phenomenon that involves the gradual integration of economies, societies, and cultures across national borders. It has been a major force in shaping the world over the past few decades and has had a significant impact on both the economics and politics of the world. #### Economic Effects of Globalisation On the economic front, globalisation has brought about changes in the way businesses operate. The opening of national markets, the liberalisation of trade and the rise of global supply chains have led to increased competition, lower prices and greater efficiency. Countries are now able to specialise in specific goods and services where they hold a comparative advantage, while importing other things from countries that can produce them at a lower cost. This led to an increase in global trade and investment, which has brought economic benefits to many countries. Indeed, global trade allows businesses to access cheaper raw materials and reach more customers in foreign markets. As a result, companies can increase productivity and profits by specialising in what they do best. The rise in international exchanges and business investment opens up economic opportunities and benefits for many countries, allowing them to grow businesses and jobs in their export industries. However, the benefits of globalisation have not been evenly distributed. Some countries, particularly in the developing world, have struggled to compete with the developed world and have been left behind in the global economy. The rise of multinational and transnational corporations has also led to concerns about the concentration of economic power and the potential for the exploitation of workers and resources. Indeed, increased global competition has led to job losses and wage stagnation in some industries in developed countries. This is due to the relocation of production to countries where labour costs are lowest. Globalised supply chains have permitted the use of cheap labour in poorer countries. In such places, workers are often subjected to poor conditions and low wages, as in the garment industries^[[13]](https://www.statista.com/chart/17903/monthly-minimum-wage-in-the-global-garment-industry/) of Bangladesh or China. Environmental standards can also suffer as countries compete for a place on the market. Thus, while globalisation has created economic growth, the benefits have not been shared equitably. It has often favoured the accumulation and mobility of capital over worker protection or the environment. #### Political Effects of Globalisation On the political front, globalisation is challenging the traditional role of the nation-state. As national borders become less relevant, governments are finding it increasingly difficult to control the flow of goods, people and ideas across their borders. This has led to concerns about issues such as immigration, national security and the protection of local industries. These concerns have, in turn, contributed to the resurgence of nationalist movements in many countries, where globalisation is seen as undermining national sovereignty and identity. At the same time, globalisation has also created opportunities for greater cooperation between nations. As countries become more interconnected, they are increasingly recognising the need to work together to address common challenges such as climate change, poverty and terrorism. However, critics argue that this large pooling of resources often reflects and serves the interests of powerful states and corporations, rather than being truly fair cooperation. International institutions such as the World Trade Organisation and the United Nations have played a role in facilitating cooperation, although some view these institutions as propagating a model of globalisation that favours the dominant capitalist economies and the global North. To conclude, the economics and politics of globalisation are closely intertwined. While globalisation has brought significant economic benefits, it has also generated challenges and inequalities. Although it has created economic growth and efficiency, it has also led to inequalities, job losses in some sectors and concerns about national sovereignty. As the world becomes more interconnected, nations grapple with the question of how to manage and respond to the effects of globalisation. Some argue governments should implement policies to reduce its downsides and distribute benefits more equitably. Others contend that market forces should dictate outcomes. Nationalist forces seek a different path, in which the nation-state assumes greater prominence. International institutions play a role in facilitating cooperation on global issues, though their involvement is sometimes viewed as biased. Globalisation is likely to continue shaping economies, politics and societies worldwide. How states choose to collaborate and compete in this context will have significant implications for the future global order and the well-being of humanity. ## Subtopic 4: Social Effects of Globalisation - Globalisation has had significant social benefits, including the rise of global social media, which facilitates cross-border connections and empowers marginalised voices. However, it also poses challenges such as mental health risks and the spread of misinformation. Migration, another consequence of #### The Rise of Global Social Media and its Effects on Society One key effect of globalisation has been the growth and popularity of social media. Globalised social media have enabled people to connect, interact and communicate easily across borders. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter (X) offer opportunities for people around the world to share experiences, views, ideas and cultures.  Through social media, numerous online communities have been created based on shared interests. These communities bring together like-minded people who might never have met otherwise. This has fostered cross-cultural understanding and appreciation among people from different parts of the world. Furthermore, globalised social media have been used to great effect in social and political movements, providing platforms for marginalised voices to be heard. For example, social media have been used to organise protests, demonstrations and political rallies. A key example is the use of social media such as Twitter (X) to mobilise people and spark political change across the Middle East and North Africa in what has become known as the Arab Spring. This began in Tunisia in December 2010 and quickly spread to other countries in the region, with the help of social media communication^[[14]](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234040341_The_Role_of_Modern_Technology_in_Arab_Spring) . Despite its social benefits, globalised social media has some drawbacks. At an individual level, it poses serious risks to people's well-being. For example, constant and relentless exposure to curated online material can create unrealistic expectations and idealised versions of reality for some people. This can lead to feelings of inadequacy, low self-esteem and an erosion of self-confidence. Spending too much time on social media can also lead to a loss of productive time for some people. The constant pursuit of likes and followers and excessive craving for validation on social media can affect people's mental health^[[15]](https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/priorities/youth-mental-health/social-media/index.html) , especially younger generations. > Care should be taken not to over-generalise the mental health impact of social media on young people. Research findings on this are mixed. Some studies show negative impacts^[[16]](https://www.cureus.com/articles/31508-social-media-use-and-its-connection-to-mental-health-a-systematic-review#!/) of social media on mental health, while others show^[[17]](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0887618517304474) neutral or even positive effects. The effects tend to differ across individuals. Viewing social media as universally bad in terms of well-being may miss some of the complexity. While excessive social media usage can lead to negative outcomes, social media is also a tool that can be used for positive effects, such as connecting with loved ones, finding support communities, and expressing creativity. Also, social media platforms have facilitated the dissemination of mental health resources and raising awareness and reducing stigma around mental health issues. Another issue raised by the development of social media is that of misinformation. The rise and spread of misinformation and fake news through social media has the potential to cause damage to society. Globalised social media can be used to manipulate public opinion, sow division, spread hatred and undermine the democratic process. For example, social media platforms have been criticised for their role in perpetuating online harassment, cyberbullying and the spread of hate speech. These can cause significant harm to individuals, leading to emotional distress, depression and even suicide. Misinformation also has political consequences, as demonstrated by scandals in 2016 such as Russian interference and the illicit use of Cambridge Analytica during the US election. Online propaganda and misinformation also led various European citizens to join the ranks of ISIS during its propaganda campaign on social media and the internet in the 2010s. It could therefore be argued that the social effects of globalisation have, on the one hand, been positive. This is particularly true in the context of globalised social media, as it has enabled unprecedented connections and empowered marginalised voices, amongst many other benefits. On the other hand, globalised social media pose challenges to individuals and society with regard to mental health issues, the spread of misinformation and harmful or illegal online activities. #### Waves of Migration in Today’s Global Order Another social effect of globalisation is migration. The movement of people across borders, known as international migration, has significant effects on social services in host countries that receive migrants. Some host countries may face challenges in providing adequate healthcare, housing, education, employment and training opportunities for a growing number of migrants. This can exert pressure on existing resources, resulting in longer waiting times and reduced access to services, such as healthcare, for both migrants and the local population. Accommodating migrant children can put pressure on schools and education systems in certain situations. Indeed, these children often need additional language support and cultural integration programmes.  This can put strains on school resources and potentially affect the quality of education for all children in host nations. Social welfare systems can also be impacted by a growing migrant population, as migrants often need access to social benefits or assistance in finding employment. All of this can affect the attitudes of local residents towards integration. International migration can evoke a range of responses from the local population. While some people may embrace diversity and multiculturalism, and welcome the contributions of migrants to society, others may oppose migration or be hostile to migrants. The openness of the world resulting from globalisation can pose new threats to society, especially in areas related to national security and social cohesion. Real or perceived concerns about crime, terrorism and the erosion of national identity can sometimes result in negative attitudes towards migrants. These may lead to a rise in xenophobia, discrimination, social exclusion and polarisation in the host nation, which may impact on migrant communities. The social effects of international migration vary in different contexts and from country to country. Factors such as economic conditions in host countries, government policies, cultural norms, political stability and level of economic development may influence public attitudes towards migration and its impact on society. Some commentators, such as Bauman , believe that understanding these factors is essential in order to address the impact of migration on host communities. According to him, this is essential to promoting inclusive societies that embrace the benefits of globalisation while mitigating its potential negative consequences. ___ Over the past few decades, globalisation has profoundly shaped the world by driving increased economic growth and cultural exchange while also creating^[[18]](https://books.google.it/books/about/The_Global_Trap.html?id=6rjBmAEACAAJ&redir_esc=y) new challenges like job insecurity and cultural homogenization. Globalisation has opened up new markets and opportunities for individuals and businesses. With the rise of global supply chains, individuals are now able to work and do business with people from all over the world. This has led to increased economic growth and job creation, particularly in developing countries. Additionally, globalisation has allowed^[[19]](https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=1565) the spread of ideas and cultures, promoting cultural exchange and mutual understanding. However, globalisation has also created new risks for individuals. The rise of global competition has led to job insecurity and the displacement of workers, especially in developed countries. Many workers are finding it difficult to compete with cheaper labour from other countries, leading to a decline in wages and job security. Moreover, the pressure to remain competitive globally has prompted some countries to keep regulations and worker protections at low standards, creating a "race to the bottom" that negatively impacts workers. Additionally, globalisation has contributed to a widening income gap between the rich and the poor, leading to social and political unrest in many countries. Globalisation has also created challenges for society as a whole. The rise of global corporations has fuelled concerns about the concentration of economic power and the potential for exploitation of workers and resources. In addition, the spread of Western culture has led to concerns about cultural homogenisation and the loss of cultural diversity. To address these challenges, many argue for greater cooperation between individuals, businesses and governments. Some believe that governments should play a role in regulating the effects of globalisation through policies that protect workers and the environment. Others say companies should promote ethical and sustainable practices and invest in the communities in which they operate. To conclude, globalisation has created both opportunities and challenges for individuals and societies. While globalisation has led to increased economic growth and cultural exchange, it has also created new risks such as job insecurity and cultural homogenisation. Perspectives differ on how to reconcile the benefits of globalisation with its disruptions. Some call for collaborative approaches between stakeholders, while others claim that market forces will naturally balance the effects of globalisation. Other voices argue the solution may be found outside the current global economy framework. ## Subtopic 5: Anti-globalisation Movements - Anti-globalisation movements have emerged in response to perceived negative aspects of globalisation. They have grown largely in opposition to growing economic inequality and the erosion of cultural identity, both perceived consequences of globalisation. Critics argue that globalisation benefits the Anti-globalisation movements, also known as anti-globalist or alter-globalisation movements have emerged in recent years as a response to the perceived negative effects of globalisation. These movements are characterised by their opposition to the increasing interconnectedness of the world, and the economic, social, and cultural changes that have resulted from it. Anti-globalisation movements are often driven by the perception that globalisation has led to a concentration of power and wealth in the hands of a select few, i.e. multinational corporations, private actors, and billionaires. Some anti-globalisation activists believe that as globalisation has progressed, the rich have become richer, and the poor have become poorer. In turn, they argue that the gap between the 'haves' and 'have-nots' has continued to widen because of the spread of global capitalism. Critics contend that globalisation favours a model of unregulated capitalism that gives an advantage to developed nations and large corporations, at the expense of developing countries and smaller businesses. Because developing economies lack the established assets and institutions to compete on a global scale, they struggle to gain a foothold in global markets. As a result, anti-globalists claim^[[20]](https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/books/191/) that the benefits of trade and development have primarily flowed to wealthy nations and individuals, while poorer regions have been relatively marginalised and excluded from the gains of globalisation. This dynamic, they argue, has exacerbated global inequality and contributed to the perception that globalisation magnifies the privilege of established elites. International institutions such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have faced several criticisms^[[21]](https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min99_e/english/misinf_e/00list_e.htm) , not only for having too much influence over global economic policies, but also for their actions that were said to lead to the exploitation of workers and the environment. Some argue international institutions impose policies that primarily serve the agendas of Western nations and open developing markets to exploitation. From this perspective, organisations like the IMF and WTO perpetuate an international status quo that favours established players over emerging economies, acting as instruments of economic “ neo-colonialism^[[22]](https://www.momentum-quarterly.org/momentum/article/view/3478) ”. However, proponents counter that these institutions aim to create rising prosperity^[[23]](https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2023/06/world-trade-can-still-drive-prosperity-georgieva-okonjo-iweala) for all through an open global marketplace. Globalisation has also sparked concerns about the loss of national identity and cultural homogenisation. In response, the goals of anti-globalisation movements vary, but they generally focus on promoting national sovereignty and protecting workers' rights. Some of them advocate protectionist policies, such as trade barriers and restrictions on immigration, whereas others focus on building local economies and promoting sustainable practices suited to regional needs. The tactics used by anti-globalisation movements range from peaceful protests and civil disobedience to violent acts of terrorism. The most notable anti-globalist protests target international organisations deemed to perpetuate economic injustice, such as the World Trade Organisation and the International Monetary Fund. Groups such as Reclaim the Streets and the Direct Action Network employ non-violent tactics such as blockades to disrupt high-profile meetings, believing that conventional channels are unresponsive to their concerns. More radical groups have engaged in property destruction and violent clashes with the authorities. More recently, anti-globalisation movements have used social media to organise and mobilise their supporters, as well as to spread their message to a wider audience. The anti-globalisation movement encompasses a diverse array of ideologies and desired outcomes, ranging from reforming globalisation to rejecting capitalism and consumerism altogether. With no single leader or hierarchy, the movement consists of loose networks and coalitions united primarily in their shared opposition to the current model. The potential impacts of anti-globalist movements on the world are complex. If they were to achieve their goals, it could lead to a reversal of globalisation and a return to localised economies and national borders. While this seems unlikely, proponents argue that this could strengthen communities and allow for autonomous policies. However, the impacts on traditional cultures are debated. Indeed, some believe localism preserves traditions, while others argue it encourages isolationism and nationalism, conflicting with diversity. Some view localism as reconnecting with local identities, while others see it as sacrificing cultural exchange. Critics of anti-globalists believe that such a reversal could also have negative consequences for the global economy, as well as for international cooperation on issues such as climate change and global security. Anti-globalists counter these critiques, arguing they could catalyse reforms to unresponsive, illegitimate institutions and find more appropriate and inclusive ways to tackle such issues. In conclusion, anti-globalisation movements have emerged as a response to the perceived negative effects of globalisation. While anti-globalisation activists have legitimate concerns about the concentration of power and wealth, their tactics and goals are often uneven and divisive. Anti-globalisation movements highlight concerns about globalisation's effects on issues like jobs, culture, and sovereignty. Policymakers and global institutions face debates about how to balance these concerns with the potential benefits of global integration and cooperation. ## Sources and further reading - [Globalization: Winners and losers in world trade](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoZiTCz_wYA) — Deutsche Welle, 2023 - [Globalization: Profits over people](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIYaSEwoblY) — Deutsche Welle, 2023 - [What is globalisation?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dD_vyptah-g) — BBC Bite Size, 2020 - [What Is Globalization?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U20vo-PA3-k) — Harvard Business School Online, 2023 - [What Is Globalization? Understand Our Interconnected World](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wLNp3kgBuuQ) — Council on Foreign Relations Education, 2019 - [Globalization I](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SnR-e0S6Ic) — Crash Course, 2012 - [Globalization II](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s_iwrt7D5OA) — Crash Course, 2012 - [Has globalization failed us?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lPNhSOVs-BU) — CNBC, 2022 - [Inequality: Globalisation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vecy6YYstOM) — Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings, 2017 - [Globalization's Discontents](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wM8ZFnHSOyw&t) — Stiglitz, J. Institute for New Economic Thinking, 2020 - [Income Inequality and the Effects of Globalization](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ja15pIDBEHc) — Learn Liberty, 2015 - [Maps of Global Interconnectivity](https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/this-stunning-interactive-map-shows-globalization-like-youve-never-seen-before/) — Doyle, S. Canadian Geographic, 2016 - [Interactive World Routes Map](https://www.shipmap.org/) — Shipmap.org, 2017 - [Trade and Globalization](https://ourworldindata.org/trade-and-globalization) — Ortiz-Ospina, E., Beltekian, D. and Roser, M. Our World In Data, 2018 - [OECD.Stat](https://stats.oecd.org/) — Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - [Top 50 countries in the Globalization Index 2022](https://www.statista.com/statistics/268168/globalization-index-by-country/) — Statista - [What is globalization anyway?](https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/01/what-is-globalization-explainer/) — Gray, A. World Economic Forum, 2017 - [Obituary - Samuel Huntington](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/01/obituary-samuel-huntington) — Hodgson, G. The Guardian, 2009 - [The Clash of Civilizations?](https://polazzo.com/clash.pdf) — Huntington, S. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3, 1993 - [Why It Seems Everything We Knew About the Global Economy Is No Longer True](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/18/business/economy/global-economy-us-china.html) — Cohen, P. The New York Times, 2023 - [The new global inequalities](https://www.lemonde.fr/blog/piketty/2021/12/14/the-new-global-inequalities/) — Piketty, T. Le Monde, 2021 - [Globalization, integration and regional specialization](https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/2511/1/kap1009.pdf) — Krieger-Boden, C. Kiel Institute of World Economics, 2000 - [What Is Globalization?](https://www.piie.com/microsites/globalization/what-is-globalization) — Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2018 - [A brief history of globalization](https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/how-globalization-4-0-fits-into-the-history-of-globalization/) — Vanham, P. World Economic Forum, 2019 - [Globalisation: the rise and fall of an idea that swept the world](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/14/globalisation-the-rise-and-fall-of-an-idea-that-swept-the-world) — Saval, N. The Guardian, 2017 - [Globalisation](https://www.economist.com/news/2009/07/20/globalisation) — The Economist, 2009 - [How Globalization Affects Developed Countries](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/10/globalization-developed-countries.asp) — Pologeorgis, N. A. Investopedia, 2023 - [Tackling the adverse effects of globalisation and integration](https://www.carloalberto.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/no.506.pdf) — Ferrera, M., Matsaganis, M. and Tortola, P. D. Collegio Carlo Alberto, 2017 - [The State of Globalization in 2023](https://hbr.org/2023/07/the-state-of-globalization-in-2023) — Altman, S. A. and Bastian, C. R. Harvard Business Review, 2023 - [The Dangerous New Anti-Globalization Consensus](https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/05/03/globalization-deglobalization-inflation-economy-trade-borders/) — Alden, E. Foreign Policy, 2022 - [Behind the Anti-Globalization Label](https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/behind-the-anti-globalization-label/) — Smith, J. Dissent, 2001 - [How anti-globalisation switched from a left to a right-wing issue – and where it will go next](https://theconversation.com/how-anti-globalisation-switched-from-a-left-to-a-right-wing-issue-and-where-it-will-go-next-90587) — Horner, R. et al. 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Davidson College, 2018 - [Making Globalization Work](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzhD7KVs-R4) — Stiglitz, J. Talks at Google, 2006 - [Globalization and the poor -- a look at the evidence](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dIldvz0jygE) — Kis-Katos, K. TEDx Talks, 2014 - [Globalization, Technological Change, and Inequality](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K_GtNgUxIJQ) — Krugman, P. and Sachs, J. CUNY Graduate Center, 2015 - [Globalization and Inequality](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=76FsIlO06Xs) — Krugman, P., Gornick, J. and Milanovic, B. CUNY Graduate Center, 2016 - [Anti-Globalization in the Era of Trump: Joseph Stiglitz on Shared Prosperity Without Protectionism](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WWVf7dkys4g) — Democracy Now!, 2017 - [Anti-globalism and the Future of the Liberal World Order](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nru68a-MzIM) — Trubowitz, P. and Burgoon, B. London School of Economics and Political Science, 2023 - [Is Globalization Dead?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zq9-vAWgmb4) — World Economic Forum, 2022 ## About the author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby Francis Jegede is an experienced academic with over 3 decades in academia in the UK Higher Education sector. He is an Associate Professor at the University of Derby, focusing his research and teaching on diplomacy, conflict resolution, negotiations, terrorism, and political economy of violence. He has held several senior academic positions and developed programs in his disciplines. Passionate about enhancing the student experience, he provides work-based learning opportunities including organising educational field trips to Europe, Africa, and Asia. Over the course of his career, Francis has developed academic links with a number of national and international institutions and organisations including the United Nations Office in Geneva. --- # International Humanitarian Law and the Conduct of War URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/international-humanitarian-law-and-the-conduct-of-war Published: 2024-03-06 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/francis-jegede-university-of-derby) Category: International Relations Countries: Iran, Iraq, Israel, Palestine Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) International humanitarian law (IHL) attempts to balance military necessity and humanitarian protection during wars. It is built on a few key principles, including proportionality, which aim to regulate warfare. But managing to apply these principles on the battlefield, where emotion and military necessity often go unmatched in terms of importance, is very difficult. Furthermore, views on what acceptable collateral damage is differ - the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear bombings in 1945, justified on the grounds of stopping the war, exemplify it best. ## Summary - War has rules that all countries should respect, but that are difficult to apply. - The Geneva Conventions provide protection for the victims of war. - Weapons of mass destruction still pose an enormous threat in today's world, and global efforts to control their proliferation are still incomplete. ## Subtopic 1: The Law of War – The Paradoxes of International Humanitarian Law - International humanitarian law (IHL) attempts to balance military necessity and humanitarian protection during wars. It is built on a few key principles, including proportionality, which aim to regulate warfare. But managing to apply these principles on the battlefield, where emotion and military ne International Humanitarian Law (IHL), also known as ‘The Law of War’ or ‘The Law of Armed Conflict’, sets out the rules and obligations applicable to all parties involved in armed conflict. It is a body of law and a set of rules which, for humanitarian reasons, seeks to limit the effects of armed conflict. Its aim is to protect individuals who are not or are no longer participating in hostilities. IHL regulates the means and methods of warfare. It applies to all parties involved in hostilities or armed conflict, whether they are states or non-state actors. The essence of IHL is to strike a careful balance between measures required to achieve the purpose of war (military necessity) and the need to protect persons affected by armed conflicts (principle of humanity). At first glance, this may seem paradoxical. Indeed, there seems to be an inherent contradiction between the pursuit of victory through force, which military leaders see as necessary, and the goal of protecting human rights, which humanitarian principles demand. The question may be asked: how can International Humanitarian Law set out legal guidelines for waging war and, at the same time, aim at protecting innocent people affected by war? The answer, for IHL, is legal pragmatism. If one takes the analogy of smoking: outright prohibition of smoking is almost universally considered unrealistic, as people would likely smoke illegally regardless of the law. So governments impose controls like age limits, warning labels, smoking areas, and tobacco taxes to deter smoking and mitigate its public health impacts. The law takes a pragmatic regulatory approach rather than an outright prohibition, a configuration which would arguably lead to uncontrolled consequences. Similarly, it would likely be counterproductive to ban war under international law, as armed conflicts would likely continue to occur outside of law. Making law legal also means creating rules for its conduct. As a result, IHL recognizes military victory as a legitimate goal, while aspiring to the protection of humanity. Principles like "military necessity" and "proportionality" aim to regulate the excesses of war. These two principles underlie the core “principle of humanity” in the conduct of war. The principle of "military necessity" legitimises states using force only when required for national security and defence, to prevent occupation by hostile forces, or to enable a rapid end to hostilities under reasonable conditions. It does not permit unrestrained warfare for political or economic gain. While not formally codified verbatim in IHL treaties, the principle of military necessity and its limitations is widely considered part of the laws governing warfare. As part of the pragmatic approach laid out by international humanitarian law, the principle of proportionality acknowledges that some civilian casualties may occur, but requires these be minimised as much as possible.  The principle of proportionality dictates that the anticipated military advantage gained from any military attack must outweigh the expected harm to civilians and civilian infrastructure. It seeks to restrict excessive use of force and protect civilian lives. The principle of humanity directly requires parties in a conflict to avoid inflicting unnecessary suffering. It encompasses, but goes beyond, the principle of proportionality. Humanity demands respectful treatment for civilians and combatants, including the provision of adequate food, shelter, and medical care for those affected by conflict. It prohibits torture, collective punishment, and other cruel practices. The paradox arises because the pursuit of military victory often seems to require actions that cause human suffering, like bombing campaigns or siege tactics. Yet IHL simultaneously demands protecting human life and dignity. Proportionality seeks to strike a balance, but ambiguities remain. What constitutes "concrete and direct"^[[1]](https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/api-1977/article-51) military advantage? How does one measure lives lost versus lives potentially saved? These highly subjective questions render the conduct of wars complex and fraught with moral dilemmas. #### Determining Proportionality: Theory and Practice In theory, International Humanitarian Law sets out a legal framework that combines military necessity with the principle of humanity. However, putting this into practice during armed conflict is fraught with challenges. A key difficulty is calculating the proportionality of a military attack versus potential civilian harm. How can combatants weigh split-second decisions between the need for military victory and respect for human rights on the battlefield? Interpretations of acceptable collateral damage versus excessive force often vary based on perspective. Proportionality^[[2]](https://utrechtjournal.org/articles/10.5334/ujiel.529) is subjective, situational, and driven by one's vantage point. Hence, reconciling military necessity and civilian protection under IHL frameworks remains an ongoing challenge. Many examples from armed conflicts confirm this. The most infamous one may be the atomic bombings^[[3]](https://www.americanheritage.com/cities-reduced-ashes) of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. These bombings killed approximately 200,000 Japanese civilians, yet US military leadership justified the action as necessary and proportionate to hasten Japan's surrender and end the war. More recently, the US interrogation program following the 9/11 attacks employed methods widely classified as torture by human rights groups. However, government lawyers at the time argued^[[4]](https://history.wisc.edu/publications/a-question-of-torture-cia-interrogation-from-the-cold-war-to-the-war-on-terror/) these methods were legally permissible and proportionate given the imminent national security threat posed by terrorism. Debates continue regarding whether post-9/11 policies upheld or violated proportionality principles in the Geneva Conventions and international law. Furthermore, the norms and interpretations of proportionality have shifted over time with the evolution of international law and customs. Ideas about what constitutes a proportional response in war have changed over time. Military tactics that were permissible in past wars are now questioned in retrospect, and new weapons and tactics raise new questions that need to be answered. #### Protection of Civilians Under International Humanitarian Law One of the primary objectives of International Humanitarian Law is the protection of persons who are not or no longer taking part in hostilities. This includes civilians, as well as wounded, sick, and shipwrecked members of the armed forces. IHL requires that these individuals be treated humanely, which means they should not be subjected to violence, intimidation, or any form of discrimination. The law also prohibits all attacks on civilians, as well as acts of terrorism and hostage-taking. In addition to general protections for all civilians, International Humanitarian Law has specific provisions for safeguarding vulnerable groups who may be disproportionately impacted by armed conflict, such as children, women, the elderly, and the disabled. Specific IHL conventions, such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Geneva Conventions, establish such protections. This includes extra safeguards for children, prohibitions on recruiting child soldiers, measures to protect expectant mothers, and requirements to care for those unable to flee conflict areas. In principle, IHL provides a legal framework for the conduct of hostilities by limiting the methods and means of warfare. Under IHL, the use of weapons that are likely to cause unnecessary suffering or that are indiscriminate in the injuries they cause, such as chemical or biological weapons, is prohibited. The law requires all parties in a conflict, without exception, to take all necessary precautions to avoid harming civilians and hitting civilian infrastructure. Attacks on people's homes, public schools, hospitals, water systems, food supplies, or agricultural lands are considered serious violations of IHL. In general, any attack on civilian facilities upon which people's livelihoods and general well-being depend is a violation of IHL. In addition to civilian infrastructures, IHL provides for the protection of cultural property, artefacts, and the natural environment during armed conflicts. It requires that parties to the conflict take all measures possible to protect these objects and places. It prohibits any deliberate or indiscriminate destruction of cultural heritage. Any attempt to attack, destroy, remove, or render useless any of these civilian objects or facilities is considered^[[5]](https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/api-1977/article-54) a war crime. ## Subtopic 2: International Humanitarian Law, Human Rights Law, and International Criminal Law – Similarities and Differences - Three main bodies of law work together to protect human rights globally. International Humanitarian Law focuses on setting rules for armed conflict to limit harm to civilians. Human Rights Law promotes human rights that all people deserve. International Criminal Law punishes individuals who commit t To avoid any mix-up or confusion, it is necessary to clarify the similarities and differences between International Humanitarian Law (IHL), Human Rights Law (HRL) and International Criminal Law (ICL). While IHL, HRL and ICL are key features of international law, there are differences in their provision and application. #### Human Rights Law Human Rights Law (HRL), or International Human Rights Law, protects the universal rights of all people everywhere regardless of race, religion, gender, or other differences. These rights are fundamental: every human being is entitled to them and they cannot be removed. Behind this idea lies the principle that all human beings have inherent dignity and worth simply by virtue of being human. Such an approach means that human rights are universal, inalienable, and indivisible. International Humanitarian Law (IHL) is not a substitute for Human Rights Law. While both laws share some common objectives, such as the protection of individuals, there are also important differences between them. Firstly, human Rights Law always applies, while International Humanitarian Law has a more narrow focus, as it applies only during armed conflicts. That is why IHL is often referred to as “the law of armed conflict”. Human Rights Law provides more extensive protection for individuals, including economic, social, and cultural rights. > The most important human rights instrument is the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights](https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights), adopted in 1948 by the General Assembly of the UN. While IHL and HRL have specific norms, the main similarity is their common goal: the protection of the individual. This protection covers, among other things, people’s physical and mental integrity, and human dignity. So while distinct, they are complementary frameworks with a common spirit at their core - shielding human life and dignity from violence and deprivation. #### International Criminal Law The principles and rules of International Criminal Law (ICL) have been developed over the years by international legal institutions. These include the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the International Criminal Court (ICC). The 1998 Rome Statute, which created the International Criminal Court, is the cornerstone of the current ICL framework. 123 states have ratified or acceded to the Statute as of 2023. International Criminal Law enables the prosecution and punishment of individuals for particularly serious international crimes. These crimes include genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. ICL applies at all times, during both war and peace. It holds both states and individuals criminally responsible for these grave breaches of international law that deeply offend human dignity. > While international criminal law establishes accountability for grave crimes, its application relies on state cooperation. Many countries have not ratified the [Rome Statute](https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/RS-Eng.pdf) which established the [International Criminal Court](https://www.icc-cpi.int/about/the-court), meaning perpetrators in those nations cannot be tried at the ICC without a UN Security Council referral. While International Humanitarian Law aims to regulate the means and methods of warfare to reduce human costs, ICL focuses on criminal offences through prosecution. Their main differentiating point is thus their focus: IHL on the victim, and ICL on the perpetrator. The difference between Human Rights Law and International Criminal Law also revolves around its focus. Human Rights Law takes a comprehensive approach aimed at promoting and protecting the full spectrum of human rights globally. For example, HRL covers rights to education, health, free speech and assembly that should be upheld for all people. ICL, on the other hand, is concerned with accountability and justice for four specific acts that constitute international crimes - genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and crimes of aggression. ## Subtopic 3: Principles and Scope of International Humanitarian Law - International humanitarian law (IHL) attempts the profound yet difficult task of preserving human dignity even in the ravages of war. To restrain brutality, IHL establishes three core principles - distinction between combatants and civilians, proportionality in attacks, and precaution against harm. International humanitarian law (IHL) aims to strike a balance between military necessity and considerations of humanity. To achieve this goal, IHL establishes three core principles: Distinction, Proportionality, and Precaution. #### Principle of Distinction The principle of distinction requires parties to a conflict to distinguish between those participating and those not participating in hostilities. Specifically, those involved in warfare - including combatants, commanders, and strategists - must discriminate between combatants and non-combatants such as civilians, the sick, wounded, or captured. This means civilians or anyone who is not a combatant should not be attacked. By distinguishing participants from non-participants, the principle of distinction aims to limit the effects of armed conflict and protect those not involved in hostilities. International Humanitarian Law strictly protects prisoners of war (POWs). The principle of distinction requires POWs to be treated humanely and their dignity respected, despite being captured enemies. IHL absolutely prohibits any ill-treatment, violence, or cruelty against POWs. It mandates they receive adequate food, shelter, medical care and communication rights. Many acts are considered violations of the dignity of Prisoners of War (POWs) under IHL. These, amongst many others, include: **• Torture and Cruel Treatment:** Inflicting physical or mental harm, torture, or subjecting POWs to inhumane treatment. •**Humiliating or Degrading Treatment**: Subjecting POWs to humiliating acts, such as forcing them to perform degrading acts, using derogatory language, or public humiliation. •**Denial of Proper Medical Care:** Failing to provide adequate medical attention and care to sick or injured POWs, or denying them access to necessary medical treatment. •**Forced Labour or Slavery:** Forcing POWs to engage in forced labour, servitude, or any form of slavery. •**Denial of Basic Needs:** Withholding essential supplies like food, water, shelter, and clothing from POWs. •**Forced Propaganda or Ideological Indoctrination:** Coercing POWs to make statements against their will, or subjecting them to forced ideological indoctrination or interfering with their freedom of thought. While combatants and military targets may lawfully be attacked during armed conflict, such attacks must only be directed at concrete and direct military objectives that offer a definite military advantage. All participants in warfare are required to take precautionary measures in the way they conduct the war and respect the principle of proportionality. #### Principle of Proportionality The principle of proportionality suggests that all military attacks must be proportionate to the threat. An attack that causes excessive incidental damage in relation to the anticipated military advantage would be considered disproportionate under International Humanitarian Law. There are historical examples of ‘disproportionate’ attacks carried out by countries in violation of IHL. One of these is the bombing of the city of Guernica^[[6]](https://www.historynet.com/persistent-myths-guernica/) during the Spanish Civil War in 1937. The attack was conducted by the German Luftwaffe, supporting General Franco's nationalist forces against the Republican government. Within three hours, these bombings caused widespread destruction and killed between 250 and 300 civilians. It was widely regarded as a disproportionate and indiscriminate act of aggression, which violated the principles of distinction and proportionality under IHL, failing to distinguish between combatants and civilians or to adhere to any standard of proportionality in the attack. Another example of a “disproportionate attack” occurred in the 2008-2009 Gaza War between Israel and Hamas. In response to indiscriminate rocket attacks by Hamas from the Gaza Strip, Israel launched a military operation that involved airstrikes and artillery shelling, targeting various sites in Gaza. Critics argued^[[7]](https://mondediplo.com/2009/03/03warcrimes) that Israel's response was disproportionate because the extent of damage and civilian casualties caused by its attacks seemingly exceeded the threat posed by Hamas' rocket fire. The United Nations and various human rights organisations raised concerns about the high number of civilian casualties, including women and children, and the destruction of infrastructure. In these two examples, determining what constitutes a ‘disproportionate’ attack is a complex and contentious issue. #### Principle of Precaution The principle of precaution requires parties to armed conflicts to select and implement methods of warfare with care and caution. This principle underlies many of the rules in international humanitarian law (IHL) that prohibit certain unethical methods of warfare. The principle of precaution emphasises the need to minimise the harm inflicted on civilians and civilian objects during military operations. In essence, the principle is a practical way of resolving or managing the tension between the ‘principle of military necessity’ and the ‘principle of proportionality’ to ensure hostilities are conducted in a humane way. This means all military actions should be planned and executed in a measured way. Under this principle of precaution, military commanders are required to assess the potential risks and consequences of their military actions. It is their obligation to ensure that any anticipated harm to civilians is proportionate to the military advantage they seek to gain from any action. In practical terms, this requires choosing means and methods of warfare that minimise harm to civilians and refraining from using unethical or inhumane methods. A few different methods fit this description: the use of perfidy, terror, famine, pillage, or hostage-taking, for instance. Similarly, weapons that can cause superfluous injury, unnecessary suffering or indiscriminate harm or casualties, are prohibited under IHL. The Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols are the key treaties that prohibit these unethical methods of warfare. Nation-states, individuals, military commanders, members of the armed forces, organised armed groups and international organisations can be prosecuted for war crimes under IHL. IHL offers personal protection to everyone, including Prisoners of War (POW), members of the armed forces, civilians, combatants, and those who no longer participate in hostilities. A core aim of International Humanitarian Law is to preserve human life and dignity even amid the devastation of war. To that end, IHL establishes protections for individuals most vulnerable to suffering and mistreatment during armed conflict. ## Subtopic 4: Core Treaties of International Humanitarian Law - The Geneva Conventions form the bedrock of international humanitarian law, establishing protections for civilians and combatants that stand to this day. Drafted in 1949 as the world began to recover from the devastation of World War II, the Conventions codified the duty to uphold human dignity even International Humanitarian Law (IHL) is codified in several key treaties that aim to regulate the conduct of parties during armed conflict and protect victims of war. The main IHL treaties are: #### The Four Geneva Conventions of 1949 **• Geneva Convention I** - Protects wounded and sick members of the armed forces in the field. **• Geneva Convention II** - Protects wounded, sick, and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea. **• Geneva Convention III** - Relates to prisoners of war. **• Geneva Convention IV** - Protects civilians, including those in occupied territory. These four conventions form the backbone of IHL. They provide protection for different categories of persons during international armed conflicts between nation-states. The first two conventions protect sick, wounded and shipwrecked military personnel. The third Geneva Convention outlines standards for the humane treatment and rights of prisoners of war (POWs). The fourth critically protects civilians from the impacts of conflict. Each convention has its own articles specific to protections for that category, but Articles 1, 2, and 3 are common across all four conventions. Scope of Application (Articles 1 & 2) Article 1 states that the Geneva Conventions must be applied in any official declaration of war or armed conflict between two or more countries. The Conventions set out protections for people not involved in fighting, such as civilians, aid workers, and medical personnel. Article 2 says the Conventions also apply to fighting within a country between government forces and rebel groups. This ensures the protections cover civil wars and other internal conflicts, not just wars between nations. Minimum Standards for All Conflicts (Common Article 3) Article 3 is identical in all four Geneva Conventions. It establishes basic minimum standards that must be followed in all conflicts, even civil wars. These minimums include: • Humane treatment for those not participating in hostilities • No torture or degrading treatment • Fair trials for anyone facing criminal charges Article 3 was groundbreaking because it set a baseline of human treatment and a standard for human dignity in conflict to be applicable universally, both in international and internal conflict. #### Additional Protocols of 1977 The Geneva Conventions of 1949 brought major improvements in the protection of victims of conflict under International Humanitarian Law. They left some situations untouched, however: the Geneva Conventions covered essentially conflicts between states, and internal conflicts within a state’s border, such as civil wars, were mostly treated superficially. Only Article 3, common to all four conventions, referred to internal conflicts. Moreover, technological advances in warfare since 1949 highlighted gaps in protections. New weapons and tactics had emerged, including increased air bombings, that caused humanitarian concerns. In addition, this new international discussion on IHL represented an opportunity for countries that were not independent in 1945 to contribute to the development of the Law. **• Additional Protocol I** - Covers international armed conflicts. Further protects civilians and combatants by clarifying the principle of distinction.**‍** **• Additional Protocol II** - Relates to non-international armed conflicts specifically and protects victims of these specific battles. These protocols supplement the four Geneva Conventions of 1949. Additional Protocol I strengthened the protections for civilians and combatants in international conflicts. Protocol II extended core IHL protections to internal armed conflicts between states and non-state groups. The Additional Protocols of 1977 thus addressed gaps in international humanitarian law left by the 1949 Geneva Conventions. ## Subtopic 5: Weapons of Mass Destruction and International Treaties - Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) threaten humanity on a scale unimaginable just a few decades ago. Their use is prohibited under international law, but loopholes remain. A handful of treaties aim to control these technologies by building transparency and trust. Such accords express an ethical stanc #### Definition of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) are weapons that can cause significant harm or damage to large numbers of people, infrastructure, or the environment. Such weapons include nuclear, chemical, radiological and biological weapons. The use of WMDs is prohibited by international law, and several treaties and agreements are in place to control their development, production, and use. Chemical weapons use toxic agents like nerve gas or mustard gas to poison and kill a high number of individuals. Biological weapons involve bacteria, viruses or toxins which are weaponized to cause deadly disease outbreaks. Radiological weapons combine radioactive material with conventional explosives to disperse dangerous radiation over large areas. Finally, nuclear weapons harness fission or fusion reactions for immense destructive blasts that have become more and more dangerous with the progress of technology. Each type of WMD poses unique risks - they can inflict mass casualties, cause long-term health effects, disrupt societies, demand specialised defences, and enable groups or nations with malicious intent to terrorise populations if acquired. Their use is prohibited under international law through treaties like the Hague Code of Conduct, the Chemical Weapons Convention, and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. #### International Treaties against Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) There are several international treaties and agreements in place to control the development, production, and use of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). Treaties Targeting Control Ballistic Missiles and Chemical Weapons The Hague Code of Conduct (HCOC) is a voluntary, non-binding international agreement that seeks to prevent the proliferation of ballistic missiles capable of delivering WMDs. The HCOC was adopted in 2002 and has been signed by 139 countries. The Code of Conduct establishes guidelines for the responsible behaviour of states in the development, testing, and deployment of ballistic missiles. The Code also aims to promote transparency and confidence-building measures between participating states. Countries such as North Korea, Pakistan, China, Iran, and Syria have not yet signed the HCOC. By not signing this agreement, these countries are not subject to the specific obligations and commitments outlined in the code. That means, for one thing, that they do not have to provide information on their ballistic missile programmes. The resulting lack of transparency can lead to regional tensions and concerns about the proliferation of WMDs. These countries may also face diplomatic pressure, scrutiny, or potential sanctions from other signatory states or the international community, as is the case with Iran. > Iran began developing ballistic missiles in the 1980s during the Iran-Iraq war. It claims its missile program are for defensive purposes only, but critics allege Iran's missiles could deliver nuclear warheads if Iran develops them in the future, threatening regional security. In conjunction with the HCOC, the United Nations (UN) also plays a significant role in disarmament efforts related to weapons of mass destruction. The UN has established several other treaties and conventions aimed at controlling the development, production, and use of WMDs. One of the most important of these treaties is the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons. The Convention was adopted in 1993 and has been ratified by 193 countries. The CWC requires participating states to destroy their existing chemical weapons stockpiles and production facilities, and to declare and destroy any chemical weapons they may discover in the future. The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) is responsible for implementing the Convention and conducting inspections of states' facilities and activities related to chemical weapons. The production and stockpiling of chemical weapons pose serious dangers to global security - as these weapons can cause indiscriminate and significant harm to people. Nevertheless, the execution of the CWC and other WMD-related treaties is not entirely free of difficulties. A historical example of these controversies is the false accusations regarding weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) used to justify the Iraq War in 2003. The United States, the United Kingdom, and their allies claimed that Iraq, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, possessed and was actively developing WMDs, including chemical weapons. These claims were used to justify military action against Iraq. It later turned out that the allegation was not only unfounded, but was based on incorrect intelligence.^[[8]](https://mepc.org/journal/how-us-intelligence-got-iran-wrong) No evidence of possession, production or stockpiling of WMDs was found in Iraq. The US-led invasion of Iraq has been blamed for causing unnecessary loss of life and infrastructure. The war has had far-reaching effects on both Iraq and the global community, stirring up sectarian tensions in Iraq and a prolonged period of violence and instability in the region. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty The UN also established the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957, which is responsible for verifying states' compliance with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The NPT aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and technology and to promote peaceful uses of nuclear energy. > It is important to note that while nuclear weapons are primarily designed for destructive purposes, the energy produced by nuclear reactions can be used for beneficial purposes. Examples of these are nuclear power plants used to generate electricity. Nuclear technologies are also used in medical diagnosis and treatment. The technologies can also be employed in agriculture to develop new, disease-resistant crops through a process called mutation breeding. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty has been signed by 191 countries since 1968. It is one of the most important disarmament treaties in the world. Under the NPT, countries are divided into two categories - nuclear-weapon states (NWS) and non-nuclear-weapon states (NNWS). NWS, such as the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom, are all committed to nuclear disarmament while pursuing peaceful uses of nuclear energy. NNWS pledged not to acquire nuclear weapons and to accept International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspections and safeguards on their nuclear activities. The IAEA monitors Non-Proliferation Treaty compliance by conducting inspections on states' nuclear programs to ensure they are used for peaceful purposes. Central to this monitoring is the requirement of all states that are party to the NPT to demonstrate transparency, openness, and accountability in their nuclear activities. Countries such as India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea own nuclear warheads but are not part of the NPT. These states developed their nuclear weapons programs outside the framework of the NPT. Over the years, there have been cases where countries have been suspected or proven to infringe or violate the NPT. For example, North Korea withdrew from the NPT in 2003 and conducted several nuclear tests, resulting in international condemnation. Similarly, Iran's nuclear programmes have also faced international scrutiny and suspicions of potential violations. ## Sources and further reading - [What are the 4 Geneva Conventions?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&si=6koVBJ5ivpOqIBRg&v=wF5Z1RHxKTs&feature=youtu.be) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2021 - [What are the Rules of War?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HwpzzAefx9M&t) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2014 - [What are the principles of international humanitarian law?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ESwfxu_1Ko0) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2021 - [International humanitarian law: a universal code](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jwqRo4Xkix8) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2009 - [What is international humanitarian law?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTv2nG6MUCw) — EU Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid, 2023 - [International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dOsNmLlv4oo) — American Red Cross International Humanitarian Law, 2021 - [International Humanitarian Law, International Human Rights Law, International Criminal Law](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qly7O1tBJjA) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2021 - [Where did the Geneva Conventions come from?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kEtOXDJl8q0) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2008 - [Jus ad bellum and jus in bello: what's the difference?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCOgepwYEhY) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2021 - [Rules of war - Seeking humanity in armed conflicts](https://www.dw.com/en/rules-of-war-seeking-humanity-in-armed-conflicts/video-65940818) — Deutsche Welle, 2023 - [Weapons of Mass Destruction](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OX6zxjxlA_4) — United Nations, 2014 - [International Humanitarian Law Databases](https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en) — International Committee of the Red Cross - [ICRC Annual Report 2022: facts and figures](https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/DOC/icrc-annual-report-2022-facts.pdf) — International Committee of the Red Cross - [Nuclear Weapons](https://ourworldindata.org/nuclear-weapons) — Roser, M., Herre, B. and Hasell, J. Our World in Data - [Biological and Chemical Weapons](https://ourworldindata.org/biological-and-chemical-weapons) — Herre, B. and Roser, M. Our World in Data - [Number of nuclear warheads worldwide as of January 2023](https://www.statista.com/statistics/264435/number-of-nuclear-warheads-worldwide/) — Statista - [Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts](https://www.rulac.org/) — Geneva Academy Of International Humanitarian Law And Human Rights - [ICRC Annual Report 2022](https://www.icrc.org/en/document/annual-report-2022) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2023 - [International humanitarian law and the protection of war victims](https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/misc/57jm93.htm) — Gasser, H. P. International Committee of the Red Cross, 1998 - [Natural disasters and Humanitarian law](https://peacepalacelibrary.nl/blog/2017/natural-disasters-and-international-law) — Cameron, E. Carnegie Foundation, 2017 - [Why is International Humanitarian Law important?](https://www.rescue.org/article/why-international-humanitarian-law-important) — International Rescue Committee, 2023 - [Geneva Conventions face new challenges](https://www.dw.com/en/geneva-conventions-at-70-more-enforcement-needed/a-49930215) — Kuebler, M. Deutsche Welle, 2019 - [Ukraine: How are war crimes defined?](https://www.dw.com/en/do-civilian-killings-in-ukraine-constitute-war-crimes/a-61357154) — Mudge, R. Deutsche Welle, 2022 - [Russia, Ukraine & International Law: On Occupation, Armed Conflict and Human Rights](https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/02/23/russia-ukraine-international-law-occupation-armed-conflict-and-human-rights) — Human Rights Watch, 2022 - [Ukraine war: what international law says about the Russians fighting against their own country](https://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-what-international-law-says-about-the-russians-fighting-against-their-own-country-207638) — Turns, D. The Conversation, 2023 - [How the ‘laws of war’ apply to the conflict between Israel and Hamas](https://theconversation.com/how-the-laws-of-war-apply-to-the-conflict-between-israel-and-hamas-215493) — Goldman, R. The Conversation, 2023 - [Can the world stop Israel and Hamas from committing war crimes? 7 questions answered about international law](https://theconversation.com/can-the-world-stop-israel-and-hamas-from-committing-war-crimes-7-questions-answered-about-international-law-155105) — Lubin, A. The Conversation, 2021 - [Rules of war: international law and the Israel-Hamas conflict](https://www.ft.com/content/0f7886df-e70e-4b7d-a4b2-03d7553949d1) — Peel, M. The Financial Times, 2023 - [What the Laws of War Say About Forced Displacement and ‘Human Shields’](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/19/world/europe/interpreter-laws-human-shields-forced-displacement.html) — Taub, A. The New York Times, 2023 - [Have war crimes been committed in Israel and Gaza?](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/10/13/war-crimes-israel-gaza-hamas/) — Taylor, A. The Washington Post, 2023 - [Is Israel acting within the laws of war?](https://www.economist.com/is-israel-acting-within-the-laws-of-war-in-gaza) — The Economist, 2023 - [The Humanitarian Catastrophe in Gaza](https://www.newyorker.com/news/q-and-a/the-humanitarian-catastrophe-in-gaza) — Chotiner, I. The New Yorker, 2023 - [What is International Humanitarian Law?](https://www.icrc.org/en/document/what-international-humanitarian-law) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2022 - [International Humanitarian Law](https://civil-protection-humanitarian-aid.ec.europa.eu/what/humanitarian-aid/international-humanitarian-law_en) — European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations - [War & Law](https://www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law) — International Committee of the Red Cross - [The laws of war in a nutshell](https://www.icrc.org/en/document/what-are-rules-of-war-geneva-conventions) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2016 - [Understanding International Humanitarian Law](https://www.diakonia.se/ihl/resources/international-humanitarian-law/understanding-international-humanitarian-law/) — Diakonia International Humanitarian Law Centre - [International Humanitarian Law in Theory and Practice](https://www.coursera.org/learn/international-humanitarian-law#modules) — Leiden University - [Weapons of Mass Destruction](https://disarmament.unoda.org/wmd/) — United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs - [Disarmament](https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/disarmament) — United Nations - [What is international humanitarian law?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=872N202SewA) — Alkaladi, T. TEDx Talks, 2020 - [Principles of international humanitarian law](https://youtu.be/gvkjLmv7r24?si=TTPcFFF5DxT-qM6B) — International Committee of the Red Cross, 2013 - [Just & Unjust Wars](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xqmnx5hESrM) — Walzer, M. Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, 2016 - [Human Rights & Humanitarian Law - Conflict or Convergence](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uo_Rvy1AXV8) — Case Western Reserve University School of Law, 2010 - [Afghanistan And Iraq: Were they 'Just Wars'?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5v9B1f7ZxFw) — Burkey, E. TEDx Talks, 2022 - [Humanity in War](https://soundcloud.com/user-134233261/introducing-humanity-in-war?in=user-134233261/sets/humanity-in-war) — Rushing, E. International Committee of the Red Cross - [In and Around War(s)](https://geneva-academy.ch/podcasts) — Geneva Academy - [Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Without a Map](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8L4SAOkfZAs) — Weber, A. TEDx Talks, 2017 ## About the author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby Francis Jegede is an experienced academic with over 3 decades in academia in the UK Higher Education sector. He is an Associate Professor at the University of Derby, focusing his research and teaching on diplomacy, conflict resolution, negotiations, terrorism, and political economy of violence. He has held several senior academic positions and developed programs in his disciplines. Passionate about enhancing the student experience, he provides work-based learning opportunities including organising educational field trips to Europe, Africa, and Asia. Over the course of his career, Francis has developed academic links with a number of national and international institutions and organisations including the United Nations Office in Geneva. --- # International Law Mechanisms Related to Refugees URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/international-law-mechanisms-related-to-refugees Published: 2024-02-01 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Eliska Flidrova, Charles University (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/eliska-flidrova-charles-university) Category: Society Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by mass migration and displacement of people across the world. Under Fridtjof Nansen, High Commissioner for Refugees (1920-1930), the League of Nations made the first attempts to regulate the refugee situation at the level of international law. However, it was only in the aftermath of World War II that a general legal regime for refugees came into force under the 1951 Refugee Convention. ## Summary - The 1951 Refugee Convention is the basis of international protection of refugees. - It defines who is a refugee and what their rights and obligations are. - The non-refoulement principle protects persons from being returned to life-threatening places or situations. ## Subtopic 1: Refugee Protection at the International Level - The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by mass migration and displacement of people across the world. Under Fridtjof Nansen, High Commissioner for Refugees (1920-1930), the League of Nations made the first attempts to regulate the refugee situation at the level of international law. Howev Migration became a matter of international law at the beginning of the 20th century. The aftermath of World War I, the Russian Revolution and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire produced^[[1]](https://www.icrc.org/ar/doc/assets/files/other/727_738_jaeger.pdf) mass movements of people across the world. The first attempts to regulate the issue of refugees at the international law level were made within the framework of the League of Nations which existed from 1920-1946. Fridtjof Nansen was one of the leading figures to promote refugee protection and served as the League of Nations’ first High Commissioner for Refugees. The League of Nations defined^[[2]](https://www.unhcr.org/publications/state-worlds-refugees-1993-challenge-protection) refugees as _“specific groups of people who were to be in danger if they returned to their home countries.”_ However, a general legal regime for refugees did not emerge^[[3]](https://www.icrc.org/ar/doc/assets/files/other/727_738_jaeger.pdf) until after World War II when the first international convention on refugees, the 1951 Refugee Convention to the Status of Refugees, was adopted together with the creation of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The 1951 Refugee Convention (amended in 1967) builds on Article 14 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which recognizes the right of persons to seek asylum from persecution in other countries. It represents to this day the core instrument of refugee protection at the international level. > The **state** as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states. The 1951 Refugee Convention contains three main provisions: 1. the legal definition of a refugee (who is a refugee and who is not) 2. the legal status of refugees and the rights and obligations associated with their refugee status 3. obligations of States and the role of the UNHCR ## Subtopic 2: Who Is a Refugee & Who Is Not - According to the 1951 Refugee Convention, a refugee is a person who can demonstrate a “well-founded fear of persecution” for at least one of the following reasons: (i) race, (ii) religion, (iii) nationality, (iv) membership of a particular social group or (v) political opinion. The definition of ref The legal definition of a refugee in the 1951 Refugee Convention^[[4]](https://www.unhcr.org/about-unhcr/who-we-are/1951-refugee-convention) is a general one, according to which a refugee is a person who is: _“...outside his or her former home country owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, and who is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself or herself of the protection of that country or to return there for reasons of fear of persecution.”_ The refugee fulfilling this definition is also sometimes called the “conventional” or “convention refugee”. Based on the wishes of governments, a time limit was included in the general definition of a refugee, according to which the term refugee shall apply to persons outside their former home country _“as a result of events occurring before 1 January 1951”_. The 1967 Protocol entirely removed this time limitation. Taking a closer look at the definition of a refugee, according to the 1951 Refugee Convention, we find that a refugee is an unprotected person who is driven to leave his or her home or State of residence due to a well-founded fear of persecution. Such a person must be outside his or her State of origin or habitual residence - it is therefore not possible to obtain refugee status before leaving one's country (e.g., through an application to the diplomatic or consular missions or immigration authorities of a foreign State). However, this does not mean that the person must have left the country immediately prior to their asylum application. It is possible for a person to have stayed abroad for some time already and become a refugee “on the spot” (_"sur place"_in legal terms) due to a change of circumstances in the country of origin during his or her absence. The definition of a refugee is a norm of substantive law, i.e., a person becomes a refugee the moment the definitional criteria are met, which occurs before a formal decision is made on his/her legal status as a refugee. > **Substantive law** creates or defines rights, duties, obligations, and causes of action that can be enforced by law. It is contrasted with procedural law (which sets procedures and methods for enforcing rights and duties). The key part of the definition is the phrase _“well-founded fear of persecution”_. This term contains both a subjective (the mental state of the person) and an objective element (the objective justification for the fear), and both must be considered. The grounds of persecution are set out exhaustively in the 1951 Convention's definition of a refugee, meaning that to be considered a refugee, a person must demonstrate a well-founded fear of persecution for at least one of the following reasons: (i) race, (ii) religion, (iii) nationality, (iv) membership of a particular social group or (v) political opinion. While the concept of persecution is not defined in the 1951 Convention, it may be inferred that a threat to life or freedom on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group is always persecution. Other serious violations of human rights – for the same reasons – would also constitute persecution. Discrimination or criminal prosecution can in some cases be considered persecution as well. The State is normally the perpetrator of persecution (the conduct of any of its organs is attributed to the State), but non-state actors (private individuals and organisations) can also be the perpetrators of persecution in certain circumstances if State authorities knowingly tolerate the persecution or are unable to provide effective protection to affected individuals. > **Persecution** is normally related to action by the authorities of a country. It may also emanate from sections of the population that do not respect the standards established by the laws of the country concerned. A case in point may be religious intolerance, amounting to persecution, in a country otherwise secular, but where sizeable fractions of the population do not respect the religious beliefs of their neighbours. Where serious discriminatory or other offensive acts are committed by the local populace, they can be considered as persecution if they are knowingly tolerated by the authorities, or if the authorities refuse, or prove unable, to offer effective protection. The definition of refugee excludes any other reasons, such as personal or economic reasons, the existence of armed conflict, famine, or natural disaster. Thus, although persons fleeing war, conflict etc. are very often called refugees, they are not legally refugees. Economic migrants^[[5]](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/economic-migrant) shall be distinguished from refugees - an economic migrant is a person who, for reasons other than those contained in the 1951 Convention's definition, voluntarily leaves his country to take up residence elsewhere. If the person is motivated exclusively by economic considerations, he or she is an economic migrant and not a refugee. The 1951 Refugee Convention also contains conditions under which a person ceases to be a refugee (the so-called cessation clause), which are based on the premise that international protection associated with refugee status should not be granted where it is no longer necessary or justified. The so-called exclusion clause then sets out the conditions that prevent persons who would otherwise meet the characteristics of a refugee from obtaining international protection – this includes persons who enjoy other protection or persons who do not deserve it for serious reasons (for example when the person committed a crime against peace, a war crime, or a crime against humanity). ## Subtopic 3: Rights & Obligations of Refugees Under the 1951 Refugee Convention - The 1951 Refugee Convention is a rights-based instrument and provides rights to refugees including non-discrimination, the right to freedom of religion, the right to basic school education and public relief as well the right to housing, free movement and the right of association. It is important to The 1951 Refugee Convention establishes a relatively rich catalogue of rights and benefits for individuals enjoying refugee status. It prescribes what treatment States are obliged to provide for refugees. However, States are not limited in providing additional rights and benefits to refugees. Refugees have the right to freedom of religion, the right to basic school education, public relief, some aspects of labour legislation and social security, same fiscal charges or free access to courts. They can also enjoy the right of association and the right to engage in wage-earning employment and the right to acquire movable and immovable property, right to self-employment, right to practise a liberal profession, right to housing, right to education other than elementary and freedom of movement. Every refugee also has duties to the country in which he finds himself, which require that he or she conforms to its laws and regulations as well as to measures taken for the maintenance of public order. The majority of the rights and benefits can only be fully enjoyed by refugees once they have been granted refugee status by the State. ## Subtopic 4: Rights & Obligations of States: Principle of Non-Refoulement - Under international human rights law, the principle of non-refoulement guarantees that no one should be returned to a country where his or her life or freedom would be threatened on account of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion. Exceptions to th The 1951 Refugee Convention also contains obligations towards States, among the most important of which is the principle of non-refoulement enshrined in the Art. 33 of the 1951 Refugee Convention. According to this principle, no country who has agreed to the 1951 Refugee Convention shall expel or return (“_refouler_”) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the borders of territories where his or her life or freedom would be threatened on account of his or her race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion. The benefit of non-refoulement may not, however, be claimed by a refugee towards whom there are reasonable grounds to consider them as a danger to the security of the State in which he or she is, or who, having been convicted of a particularly serious crime (the definition of what counts as a “serious crimes” varies by State), constitutes a danger to the community of that State. > **Customary law** is a legally defined term so it cannot be changed. Inclusion of non-refoulement is however bit disputed amongst academics around the world. So I will either prepare explanatory box or delete the reference to customary law if you think it will be more clear for the readers. The principle of non-refoulement is now one of the essential principles of international law, not only in the refugee context but also under international human rights, humanitarian, and, to a certain extent, also customary law. ## Subtopic 5: Regional Instruments of Refugee Protection - Alongside the 1951 Refugee Convention, regional conventions also help determine refugee rights. In Africa, for example, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) 1969 Refugee Convention does not oblige states to grant protected status to persons whom it defines as refugees. However, it calls on states In addition to the 1951 Refugee Convention, there are several regional conventions and other instruments that deal with refugee issues. In Africa, there is The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa adopted in 1969 (the OAU 1969 Refugee Convention), which reacts to both the concept of individual refugees and refugee flows. The OAU Refugee Convention^[[6]](https://www.unhcr.org/media/oau-convention-governing-specific-aspects-refugee-problems-africa-adopted-assembly-heads) adds to the 1951 Refugee Convention definition another regional refugee status for every person who, owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination, or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or the whole of his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence in order to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality. The OAU 1969 Refugee Convention does not oblige states to grant protected status to persons whom it defines as refugees. It does, however, call on them to seek to admit refugees to their territory and implicitly to grant asylum in the sense of refuge. Regional instruments in the Americas are in the form of soft law (i.e., do not have any legally binding force). Worth mentioning is the non-binding Cartagena Declaration on Refugees^[[7]](https://www.unhcr.org/media/cartagena-declaration-refugees-adopted-colloquium-international-protection-refugees-central) , adopted in 1984 which has become a landmark^[[8]](https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/51c801934.pdf) in regional regulation and is seen as a tool for addressing the Latin American refugee issue. There is no regional treaty instrument dedicated to refugees in the Asia and Oceania regions. Moreover, there is a fragmented practice of States, many of which not only do not have national refugee legislation but are not even parties to the 1951 Refugee Convention. However, we cannot overlook an important soft-law document, the Bangkok Principles on the Status and Treatment of Refugees^[[9]](https://www.refworld.org/docid/3de5f2d52.html) of 1966 (revised in 2001), which encourages States to adopt national legislation on the status and treatment of refugees. In the context of Europe, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms^[[10]](https://www.coe.int/en/web/human-rights-convention/the-convention-in-1950) drafted in 1950 by the Council of Europe represents the most relevant tool for the indirect protection of refugees. The European Union, as a sub-regional international organisation, has established a complex system of a comprehensive approach to migration and asylum called the Common European Asylum System^[[11]](https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/migration-and-asylum/common-european-asylum-system_en) (CEAS) which comprises different legislative instruments that must be complied with by the EU Member States. All EU Member States are also parties to the 1951 Refugee Convention. ## Sources and further reading - [What does it mean to be a refugee?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25bwiSikRsI) — Berti, B. and Borgman E. TED-Ed, 2016 - [IOM’s Steadfast Support to Global Resettlement](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74sWUEzRoHg) — International Organization for Migration, 2018 - [The UN Refugee Convention of 1951](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i5fnRd2_gB4) — Kreisau-Initiative, 2018 - [70 years of the Refugee Convention - a lifesaving document](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aB78mUJS6E4) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2021 - [What is refugee resettlement and what is UNHCR’s role?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPu12hOoAu8) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2020 - [Words matter - explainers on refugees, asylum and migration](https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL9g_yp_6cf6rO6P9WuoS1ArPG1qkDVkXb) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2017 - [Devising policy for a human-rights based refugee protection system](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvr7MCrcS1U) — Science Animated, 2021 - [What is a refugee?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CRk8eaW3X1Y) — Save the Children, 2020 - [The UN Refugee Agency: Our Story](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ymxq7D2DfA) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2015 - [UNHCR's Global Trends Report: 100 Million Displaced](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vl8gYm4nNDQ) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2022 - [Refugee Protection and Forced Migration Studies - An Overview](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dy5zJJgyti4) — Cantor, D. and Singer, S. University of London, 2019 - [International Refugee Law](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BTpNdngKAao) — Rehaag, S. Centre for Refugee Studies, 2020 - [International Politics of Refugee Protection](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=151j-jDoMzk) — Rehaag, S. Centre for Refugee Studies, 2020 - [The Refugee Convention](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PZvx9yg5Wlw) — McAdam, J. University of New South Wales, 2014 - [Greece: Waiting for Asylum](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RnUxKBog1VA) — Arte TV, 2022 - [Moria: The EU's failed refugee policy](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JvugagwgWfI) — Deutsche Welle, 2021 - [Refugee Data Finder](https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - [Asylum Information Database](https://asylumineurope.org/) — European Council on Refugees and Exiles - [Asylum applications - monthly statistics](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Asylum_applications_-_monthly_statistics#Main_trends_in_the_number_of_asylum_applicants) — Eurostat - [Glossary on Migration](https://publications.iom.int/books/international-migration-law-ndeg34-glossary-migration) — Sironi, A., Bauloz, C. and Emmanuel, M. International Organization for Migration, 2019 - [Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status](https://www.unhcr.org/publications/legal/5ddfcdc47/handbook-procedures-criteria-determining-refugee-status-under-1951-convention.html) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2019 - [Refugee Protection in International Law](https://www.unhcr.org/protection/globalconsult/4a1ba1aa6/refugee-protection-international-law.html) — Feller E., Türk V., and Nicholson F. Cambridge University Press, 2003 - [International Legal Norms and Migration: An Analysis](https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/idm_3_en.pdf) — Aleinikoff, A. T. International Organization for Migration, 2002 - [Latest Asylum Trends - Annual Overview 2022](https://euaa.europa.eu/latest-asylum-trends-annual-overview-2022) — European Union Agency for Asylum, 2023 - [Asylum Report 2022](https://euaa.europa.eu/publications/asylum-report-2022) — European Union Agency for Asylum, 2022 - [Global Report 2021](https://reporting.unhcr.org/globalreport2021) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2022 - [Revisiting the 1951 Refugee Convention: Exploring Global Perspectives](https://www.orfonline.org/research/understanding-the-relevance-of-the-1951-convention) — Chaudhury, A. B. R. Observer Research Foundation and Global Policy Journal, 2022 - [The legal framework for migrants and refugees](https://www.rcrc-resilience-southeastasia.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/The-legal-framework-for-migrants-and-refugees-Dec-2017-V3.pdf) — International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2017 - [Note on migration and the principle of non-refoulement](https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/irrc-904-19.pdf) — International Review of the Red Cross, 2018 - [Asian Perspectives and Realities in Asylum Protection and Associated Human Rights](https://www.iarmj.org/images/_region-apc/docs/asian_perspectives_and_realities_in_asylum_protection_and_associated_human_rights.pdf) — Mackey, A. and Bozovik, M. International Association of Refugee Law Judges, 2017 - [A guide to international refugee protection and building state asylum systems](https://www.unhcr.org/publications/legal/3d4aba564/refugee-protection-guide-international-refugee-law-handbook-parliamentarians.html) — Nicholson, F. and Kumin, J. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2017 - [Refugee protection in the EU: Building resilience to geopolitical conflict](https://www.epc.eu/en/Publications/Refugee-protection-in-the-EU-Building-resilience-to-geopolitical-conf~4b4f4c) — Lücke, M. et al. Mercator Dialogue on Asylum and Migration, 2022 - [The End of the 1951 Refugee Convention? Dilemmas of Sovereignty, Territoriality, and Human Rights](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42439-020-00022-1) — Benhabib, S. Jus Cogens, 2020 - [Who counts as a refugee?](https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2021/07/27/who-counts-as-a-refugee) — The Economist, 2021 - [Comparative regional protection frameworks for refugees: norms and norm entrepreneurs](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13642987.2016.1141499) — Kneebone, S. The International Journal of Human Rights, 2016 - [Why climate migrants do not have refugee status](https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/03/06/why-climate-migrants-do-not-have-refugee-status) — The Economist, 2018 - [The principle of non-refoulement in the migration context: 5 key points](https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2018/03/30/principle-of-non-refoulement-migration-context-5-key-points/) — Rodenhäuser, T. Humanitarian Law & Policy, 2018 - [Strangers in strange lands](https://www.economist.com/briefing/2015/09/12/strangers-in-strange-lands) — The Economist, 2015 - [What Makes Someone a Refugee?](https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/07/what-makes-someone-a-refugee/375216/) — Green, E. The Atlantic, 2014 - [The World’s Refugee System Is Broken](https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/02/japan-refugees-asylum-broken/607003/) — Katz, M. The Atlantic, 2020 - [The Refugee Meritocracy](https://www.currentaffairs.org/2020/05/the-refugee-meritocracy) — Church, D. Current Affairs, 2020 - [A blurred distinction between refugees and migrants is a recipe for chaos](https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/a-blurred-distinction-between-refugees-and-migrants-is-a-recipe-for-chaos/) — Jenkins, J. The Spectator, 2021 - [Refugee protection is politics](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/openglobalrights-openpage/refugee-protection-is-politics/) — Landau, L. B. and Amir, R. OpenDemocracy, 2016 - [The Cartagena Declaration at 35 and Refugee Protection in Latin America](https://www.e-ir.info/2019/11/22/the-cartagena-declaration-at-35-and-refugee-protection-in-latin-america/) — Jubilut, L. L., Espinoza, M. V. and Mezzanotti, G. E-International Relations, 2019 - [Between disbelief and indifference: Are the “environmentally displaced” refugees under the extended definition of the Cartagena Declaration?](https://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/internacia/article/view/21833) — Pajuelo, O. Internacia: Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, 2020 - [The application of the Cartagena Declaration on Refugees to Venezuelans in Brazil: An analysis of the decision-making process by the National Committee for Refugees](https://revistas.uniandes.edu.co/index.php/lar/article/view/4688/4239) — Tavares, N. C. O. and Cabral, V. P. Latin American Law Review, 2020 - [The world’s most travelled document: A brief history of early passports and Nansen certificates](https://untoday.org/the-worlds-most-travelled-document/) — Beger, G. UN Today, 2021 - [What is a refugee?](https://www.unhcr.org/what-is-a-refugee.html) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - [The 1951 Refugee Convention](https://www.unhcr.org/1951-refugee-convention.html) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - [Refugees, Asylum Seekers and Migrants](https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/refugees-asylum-seekers-and-migrants/) — Amnesty International - [Refugee Status Determination](https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-status-determination.html) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - [The principle of non-refoulement under international human rights law](https://migrationnetwork.un.org/resources/principle-non-refoulement-under-international-human-rights-law) — Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2018 - [The responsibilities and obligations of migrants towards host countries](https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/our_work/ODG/GCM/IOM-Thematic-Paper-Responsibilities-and-obligations-of-migrants.pdf) — International Organization for Migration - [Refugee Protection](https://humanrightsfirst.org/efforts/refugee-protection/) — Human Rights First - [Refugees: Welcome](https://www.redcross.org.uk/get-involved/teaching-resources/refugees-welcome) — British Red Cross, 2016 - [Forced from home](https://www.doctorswithoutborders.ca/educational-resources-about-refugees) — Médecins Sans Frontières, 2016 - [No Radio Silence](https://read.bookcreator.com/kfMVaMZPZhPe97AJ1lTA8RRbnSk2/l1dlrZWHRP6FGFvoLShwLg) — Unity Sisters and Govanhill Baths Community Trust, 2021 - [Teaching About Refugees](https://www.unhcr.org/teaching-about-refugees.html) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2021 - [Refugees have the right to be protected](https://www.ted.com/talks/antonio_guterres_refugees_have_the_right_to_be_protected?referrer=playlist-refugees_welcome&autoplay=true) — Guterres, A. TED, 2015 - [Introducing the European Union agency for asylum](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yq9skUEEWkw) — European Parliamentary Research Service, 2021 - [Our refugee system is failing. Here's how we can fix it](https://www.ted.com/talks/alexander_betts_our_refugee_system_is_failing_here_s_how_we_can_fix_it?referrer=playlist-refugees_welcome) — Betts, A. TED, 2016 - [The 1951 UN Refugee Convention: its origins and significance](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iH9PXIotFbU) — Gatrell, P. The British Academy, 2021 ## About the author: Eliska Flidrova, Charles University Assistant professor of International Law at the Law Faculty of Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic. In her professional activities she focuses on refugee and migration issues, human rights, and state sovereignty. Founding member of the Centre for Migration and Refugee Law at Charles University. --- # Types of Migrants URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/types-of-migrants Published: 2024-02-01 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Samar El Yassir, Anera Foundation (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/samar-el-yassir-anera-foundation) Category: Society Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) There is no universally accepted definition for “migrant” at the international level. Amnesty International, for example, describes migrants as people staying outside their country of origin, who are not asylum seekers or refugees. This definition draws a distinction between voluntary and involuntary movements. On the other hand, the UN Migration Agency's (IOM) defines a migrant as a person who is moving or has moved across an international border regardless of the person’s legal status or whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary. ## Summary - There is no universally accepted definition of who is a migrant. - Migration can either be voluntary or forced. - Economic, political and environmental reasons often motivate migration. ## Subtopic 1: Definition of migrants - There is no universally accepted definition for “migrant” at the international level. Amnesty International, for example, describes migrants as people staying outside their country of origin, who are not asylum seekers or refugees. This definition draws a distinction between voluntary and involuntar When discussing migration and analyzing its causes and types, determining who counts as a migrant is fundamental. Yet, there is no internationally acknowledged legal description of the term "migrant".^[[1]](https://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/who-counts-as-a-migrant-definitions-and-their-consequences/) Migrants might be defined by their movement into a new country to stay temporarily or to settle for the long-term or by their legal status in the destination country. Amnesty International, a global movement of more than 10 million people in over 150 countries and territories who campaign to end human rights abuse, defines^[[2]](https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/refugees-asylum-seekers-and-migrants/) migrants as people staying outside their country of origin who are not asylum seekers or refugees. This definition makes a distinction between voluntary and involuntary movements. As such, many organizations, including Amnesty International and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) agree^[[3]](https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/refugees-asylum-seekers-and-migrants/) that refugees are people who have escaped war, violence, conflict, or persecution and have moved to another country to find safety. However, if these people are not yet legally recognized as refugees in the destination country, then they are referred to as “asylum seekers”.^[[4]](https://www.concern.net/news/refugee-idp-migrant-difference) This legal distinction is crucial as refugee status grants a number of protections under international law, the most important being "non-refoulement". This means that refugees have a right to protection from the country in which they seek asylum, and cannot be forced to return home. They also have the right to education, employment, healthcare, and freedom of movement under the UN's 1951 Refugee Convention, although these rights are sometimes violated . People who are forced to flee their homes for the same reasons as refugees but have not crossed an international border are referred to as “internally displaced persons”^[[5]](https://www.concern.net/news/refugee-idp-migrant-difference) (IDPs). While IDPs may face the same hardships and challenges faced by refugees, assistance to them under international law is not obligatory. On the other hand, the UN Migration Agency's (IOM) definition of migrants is not based on the reason for movement, the nature, or the length of stay. IOM defines^[[6]](https://weblog.iom.int/who-migrant) a migrant as any person who is moving or has moved across an international border or within a state away from his or her habitual place of residence, regardless of the person’s legal status, whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary, what the causes for the movement are, or what the length of the stay is. ## Subtopic 2: Voluntary vs. Forced Migration - In the case of voluntary migration, individuals choose to relocate as they seek better economic and social opportunities. While voluntary migrants can be valued for their contributions to society, in other countries, they may face discrimination as they try to establish a new life for themselves.For Migration can occur for a variety of reasons, but it is often broadly categorized into two types^[[7]](https://weblog.iom.int/who-migrant) : voluntary and forced. #### Voluntary Migration Voluntary migrants are individuals who choose to leave their home countries in search of better opportunities, whether that be for economic, social, or political reasons. These individuals often face numerous challenges as they adapt to their new environments and work to establish themselves in their host countries. Despite these obstacles, voluntary migrants have made significant contributions^[[8]](https://emm.iom.int/handbooks/global-context-international-migration/types-movements-0) to their host communities, including creating businesses and jobs, revitalizing neighborhoods, and adding diversity to cultural and intellectual landscapes. In some countries, such as Canada and Australia, voluntary migrants have been welcomed and valued for their contributions to society. According to the Migration Policy Institute, immigrants in Canada are more likely than native-born Canadians to have a bachelor's degree or higher, and they are also more likely to start their own businesses. Similarly, in Australia, migrants have been credited with driving the country's economic growth and filling critical skills shortages. However, in other countries, voluntary migrants may face discrimination, xenophobia, and other challenges as they try to establish themselves in their new homes. According to a report by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, immigrants in Europe often face discrimination in the workplace and are more likely to live in poverty than native-born citizens. Host communities may also view voluntary migrants as a threat^[[9]](https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2012/migrants-irregular-situation-access-healthcare-10-european-union-member-states) to their culture or identity, leading to tension and hostility. Despite these challenges, voluntary migrants continue to make significant contributions to their host communities, and their impact is often far-reaching. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, it is essential that we recognize and appreciate the vital role that voluntary migrants play in shaping our societies and economies. #### Forced Migration While many individuals migrate willingly, many others migrate forcibly. Forced migration occurs when individuals are compelled to leave their homes due to circumstances^[[10]](https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/refugees) beyond their control, such as persecution, conflict, natural disasters, or environmental degradation. According to the United Nations Higher Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the number of people forced to migrate worldwide was 79.5 million at the end of 2019. According to statistics from the United Nations, “33% were refugees, of whom ¾ are under UNHCR’s mandate and ¼ are Palestine refugees under the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA’s) mandate. 57% were internally displaced, 5.5% were asylum-seekers, and 4.5% were Venezuelans displaced abroad”. Forced migration is a complex and multi-faceted issue that affects millions of individuals around the world. It occurs^[[11]](https://www.internal-displacement.org/global-report/grid2022/) when people are forced to leave their homes due to circumstances beyond their control, such as conflict, persecution, or natural disasters. Forced migration can have devastating consequences for individuals and communities, including displacement, loss of livelihoods, and exposure to violence and exploitation. Furthermore, the effects of forced migration can be felt for generations, as individuals and families struggle to rebuild their lives and communities in new and often unfamiliar environments. In the subsequent sections, we will examine the different types of forced migrations, namely, economic migration, political migration, and climate migration, and highlight the urgent need for effective responses to support those affected by this issue. By examining the drivers of these two types of migration, we can better understand the complex factors that shape migration patterns and their impacts on individuals, communities, and societies. Whatever the reason for migration, all migrants share the same experience: that of leaving their countries, where they all have to cope with and adjust to a new culture, and often, a new language, while trying to maintain their cultural heritage and language. ## Subtopic 3: Causes and Types of Voluntary Migration - Economic migrants voluntarily cross borders in search of better employment opportunities, higher standards of living, and better educational opportunities. Positive views indicate that such migrants may contribute to the economy by filling labor shortages and paying taxes. On the negative side, some #### Voluntary Economic Migration While refugees may be the most talked about type of migrant in the media, 90% of the world’s 247 million migrants have voluntarily moved^[[12]](https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/global-migrations-impact-and-opportunity) across borders for economic reasons. We may define economic migration as the movement of people from one country to another in pursuit of economic opportunities. These economic opportunities include higher wages, better employment opportunities, higher standards of living, and better educational opportunities. When economic conditions in a country or region become unfavorable or are at risk of deteriorating further, a larger number of people might be motivated to migrate^[[13]](https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/world/20200624STO81906/exploring-migration-causes-why-people-migrate) to countries with better economic opportunities. Economic migration movements^[[14]](https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/global-migrations-impact-and-opportunity) are characteristically slow compared to refugee influxes and often do not place stress on either the logistics or the social structure of destination countries. The idea that economic migration movements do not stress destination countries compared to refugee influxes may be surprising to some, but there are several reasons why this is often the case. Firstly, economic migrants tend to have more flexibility^[[15]](https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2015-migrants-and-cities-new-partnerships-manage-mobility) in terms of timing their move and planning for their integration into the host country, whereas refugees often flee their homes with little time^[[16]](https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2015-migrants-and-cities-new-partnerships-manage-mobility) for preparation. Secondly, economic migrants are often subject to stricter immigration policies and quotas, which can slow down the pace of migration. However, there are also arguments against^[[17]](https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/c3e35eec-en/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/c3e35eec-en) economic migration, particularly from the perspective of host countries. Some may argue that economic migrants take jobs from local workers, driving down wages and creating competition for scarce resources. Others may argue that economic migrants place an undue burden on social services and infrastructure, particularly if they are undocumented or do not have legal status. Indeed, undocumented economic migrants may be more vulnerable^[[18]](https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/c3e35eec-en/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/c3e35eec-en) to exploitation and abuse, and may face greater challenges in accessing healthcare, education, and other basic services. Statistics show that economic migrants can have positive and negative impacts^[[19]](https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/how-immigrants-contribute-to-developing-countries-economies_9789264288737-en) on host countries. On the one hand, they may contribute to the economy by filling shortages, starting businesses, and paying taxes. In fact, the economic impact of migration has been intensively studied, but public opinion is still often driven by an ill-informed narrative against immigrants and their contribution to the economy, which is often portrayed in the media. These negative views include believing that migrants bring competition for jobs and social benefits and that they do not follow local labor laws. Numerous studies conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation & Development (OECD), the International Labour Organization (ILO), and specialized consulting agencies such as McKinsey indicate^[[20]](https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/global-migrations-impact-and-opportunity) that most economic migrants are working-age adults, a feature that helps increase economic activity in destination countries. Among other benefits, the OECD states that migrants, over the past ten years, accounted^[[21]](https://www.oecd.org/migration/OECD%20Migration%20Policy%20Debates%20Numero%202.pdf) for a 47% increase in the workforce in the United States and 70% in Europe. They also stated that economic migrants give more in tax and social contributions than they receive in benefits. To cope with a lack of labor in certain sectors, or to revitalize their national economies, several countries have put in place advantageous measures^[[22]](https://www.talentbeyondboundaries.org/hiring-displaced-talent?) to attract foreign workers. Some of these countries include, but are not limited to, Canada, the Gulf States, the EU, and Thailand. Canada, for example, has initiated a flexible immigration system^[[23]](https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/work-canada/hire-temporary-foreign.html) under the "Hire Immigrants" program. This program can help attract and retain the right talent to fill labor shortages and bring new skills to boost the competitive edge of local companies. There are also charities and non-governmental organizations that support migrants in securing jobs abroad. For example, Talent Beyond Borders^[[24]](https://www.talentbeyondboundaries.org/hiring-displaced-talent?) (TBB) is an international charity committed to opening employment opportunities for refugees and other displaced people across the world so that they may work in countries where they can access full rights and stability. TBB collaborates directly with refugee candidates to connect them with opportunities and prepare them for recruitment processes abroad. TBB also works with employers and governments in a number of countries — including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom — to secure job opportunities for candidates. **AN:** _For decades, Lebanon where I live — a small Mediterranean country — has hosted hundreds of thousands of migrant laborers from different countries. These foreign workers compensate for a gap in our skilled and semi-skilled laborers in sectors such as agriculture, construction, and domestic work. At the same time, sources estimate the Lebanese diaspora to be at least double the number of citizens living inside Lebanon. Remittances from the Lebanese diaspora are critical to the national economy especially during its financial crisis.  The World Bank underlines the importance of Lebanon’s diaspora to the national economy, which was equivalent to 36.2% of the country’s GDP in 2020._ #### Family Migration Another type of voluntary migration is family migration^[[25]](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/family-migration) , which refers to a family member voluntarily leaving their home country to join one of their relatives who is already  living in another country. This commonly includes partners, spouses, dependent children, and elderly relatives going to join their family members in another country. In fact, family reunification is an accepted legal reason for immigration in many countries because of the presence of one or more family members in the destination country. In general, data on family migration is scarce, and family reunion programs are the primary method to gather such data. Data on family migration in developing countries is either sparse or scattered, due to a lack^[[26]](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/family-migration) of capacity or political interest in collecting such data_._ Many countries, including Canada and many EU countries, have developed family reunification programs to ensure the right of individuals to a family in alignment with Article 16 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights^[[27]](https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights) . Family migration as a general concept covers^[[28]](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/family-migration) family reunification, family formation, accompanying family members of workers, and international adoption. According to the Migration Data Portal^[[29]](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/family-migration) , around 1.2 million migrants in 2020 (37%) moved to OECD countries for family reasons_._ ## Subtopic 4: Causes and Types of Forced Migration - Forced migration is the involuntary movement of a person or people away from their country of origin. It is driven by political, economic, or environmental considerations. In the case of political migration, there is a real fear of persecution based on religion, nationality, or race. Vulnerable popu #### Forced Economic Migration Economic conditions can often be a significant motivating factor^[[30]](https://emm.iom.int/handbooks/global-context-international-migration/drivers-international-migration) for individuals who choose to migrate voluntarily. In many cases, people leave their home countries because they face significant economic challenges, such as high unemployment rates, low wages, or limited access to education and job opportunities. While these individuals may not be forced to migrate by external factors such as conflict or persecution, they still face significant pressures and may see migration as their best option for improving their economic prospects. For example, in recent years, many individuals from Central America have migrated to the United States in search of better economic opportunities. These migrants often come from countries with high levels^[[31]](https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/IF11151.pdf) of poverty and violence, and they may face significant economic challenges even if they are not personally affected by violence or persecution . Similarly, many individuals from African countries have migrated to Europe in search of better economic prospects, often undertaking dangerous journeys across the Mediterranean in the process. It is important to note, however, that the dichotomy between forced and voluntary economic migration is not always clear-cut. In many cases, individuals may face a combination of economic, social, and political pressures that lead them to migrate, and it can be difficult to separate these factors out. Regardless of the specific factors that drive individuals to migrate, it is clear that economic conditions play a significant role in many migration decisions, and it is essential that we address these challenges in order to reduce the need for individuals to migrate in the first place. #### Political Migration Unfortunately, insecurity forces many individuals to flee their countries in search of safety elsewhere. Insecurity may be caused by war, whether a civil war or an invasion by another state. Other sources of insecurity could be state policies that violate human rights, or cause harm to people who oppose them. These people often feel threatened and are unable to return home for fear of persecution or because they believe that they will not be welcomed. A salient example is the Syrian refugees, who, since the beginning of the Syrian War in 2011, have been forced to take refuge in many countries around the world.  Others are simply not allowed to return to their rightful home countries because of occupation, as in the case of Palestinian refugees who have been forcefully displaced^[[32]](https://www.un.org/unispal/history/) since 1948. #### Environmental Migration Environmental or natural disasters often force individuals or groups of individuals to migrate or flee from their home region. Migration due to environmental factors can be either temporary or permanent, and is motivated by the adverse effects it has on people’s wellbeing or livelihood. These negative effects include the danger of death or physical injury as a direct result of the disaster or the loss of housing, possessions, work, or community. Such effects place survivors of natural disasters at very high emotional, physical, and mental risk and pose many economic risks and challenges. Scientists refer to those who migrate due to environmental factors as “climate migrants”, as the effects of disasters are displacing more people^[[33]](https://india.mongabay.com/2020/02/extreme-weather-events-causing-most-migration/) as compared to other reasons for displacement like conflict and violence. This is mainly due to the adverse effects of climate change. “Many more people are newly displaced by [natural] disasters in any given year, compared to those newly displaced by conflict and violence, and more countries are affected by disaster displacement,” says the latest World Migration Report published at the end of 2019. The report estimates 3.3 million new displacements in South Asia, caused by sudden natural disasters in 2018. These include^[[34]](https://reliefweb.int/report/world/more-13-million-people-internally-displaced-across-asia-2018) geophysical events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions that accounted for most of the new displacement in Indonesia, and monsoon rains and flooding that displaced hundreds of thousands more in Myanmar. Japan was struck by an unusually high number of disasters, from storms to landslides, and small island states in the Pacific were also affected by geophysical activity and floods. India suffered the highest impact of natural disasters, with more than 2.7 million people displaced due to tropical storms and floods. Climate migrants are predicted to take over other types of migrants in  terms of numbers, as multiple organizations forecast^[[35]](https://scrippsnews.com/stories/multiple-studies-forecast-worsening-natural-disasters/) worsening and increased natural disasters that will lead to economic catastrophes, food shortages, and increased migration. The United Nations' Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) projects a dramatic rise in natural disasters in the next eight years; from an average of 400 a year to 560 by 2030. The University of Oklahoma studied future rain events and predicts a dramatic increase in flash flooding in the southwest and center of the U.S., along the Mississippi and Ohio river valleys. ## Sources and further reading - [DevExplains: Refugee vs. migrant](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EOHMBKPg1hU) — Devex, 2016 - [What is an environmental refugee?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-MxZNr1j_gg) — Sunhak Peace Prize, 2020 - [Climate migrants: who are they and where will they go?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pO18pM9ZLj4) — Agence France-Presse, 2022 - [Climate change and migration: How do they connect?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5SygtZCFzo) — German Institute of Development and Sustainability, 2019 - [Flight for Life: A Climate Migrant Story](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7mFMZTdC2Zc) — United Nations, 2022 - [Introduction to Family Migration](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3ns-4iBo5g) — Ashraf, A. Burness Paull, 2022 - [Family Norms in Migration Politics](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cqsog6NCmnQ) — Bonjour, S. University of Amsterdam, 2021 - [Who is a migrant?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oAOvJdoHR8M) — Siegel, M. United Nations University, 2020 - [Types of migrants](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DtMly75DMeE) — Siegel, M. United Nations University, 2020 - [Who is a Migrant?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRPfM5Oj-QA) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2017 - [Economic migration](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q-4yKLNIZO0) — DG Migration and Home Affairs, 2013 - [What is the difference between a refugee and an economic migrant?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHuGTSkii3g) — World Bank, 2019 - [What is the difference between a migrant and a refugee?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3e08v5GN__s) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2019 - [What's the Difference Between a Migrant and a Refugee?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwSOds50Afk) — Council on Foreign Relations Education, 2019 - [What is the difference between a refugee, an asylum seeker and a migrant?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xuj-0RL0qLo) — European Union Agency for Asylum, 2023 - [Where and Why Do People Move?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Z55k7CqZ0c) — CrashCourse, 2021 - [A New Generation of Forced Migration](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vA6izIe5Crg) — Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2019 - [Animated video on forced migration](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jVofjg1WhuI) — Development and Peace, 2018 - [Forced migration facts and figures](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJ-PMKRRvhc) — Siegel, M. United Nations University, 2020 - [Forced Migration and displacement](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4r68SQIt1U) — International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2012 - [The world's first climate change refugees](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46yvAKge3qQ) — CBS, 2017 - [Climate-change migrants: what can be done?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A3AuCQml7IQ) — The Economist, 2023 - [The New Face Of Climate Change — The Climate Migrant](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UDlHcxWtbvw) — VICE, 2019 - [Climate refugees: The quest for a haven from extreme weather events](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SByFy9R6320) — CBS, 2021 - [Families in Crisis: Illegal Immigration](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kadMi7ijna4) — CBS, 2019 - [Fleeing climate change — the real environmental disaster](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cl4Uv9_7KJE) — Deutsche Welle, 2019 - [Climate Refugees](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0bgVdo48VTY) — TheGrapevineTV, 2010 - [Migration and Human Mobility: Key Global Figures](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/resource/key-global-migration-figures) — International Organization for Migration, 2023 - [Top Statistics on Global Migration and Migrants](https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/top-statistics-global-migration-migrants#Humanitarian%20migrants) — Migration Policy Institute, 2022 - [Family migration](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/family-migration) — Migration Data Portal - [Key migration data](https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1691/files/documents/Key%2520Migration%2520Data%2520at%2520a%2520glance.jpg) — International Organization for Migration, 2022 - [Family Migration](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-92377-8_8) — Kofman, E., Buhr, F. and Fonseca, M. L. Springer, 2022 - [Let’s Talk About Climate Migrants, Not Climate Refugees](https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/06/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees/) — Ionesco, D. United Nations, 2019 - [A Portrait of Family Migration in OECD Countries](https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2017/a-portrait-of-family-migration-in-oecd-countries_migr_outlook-2017-6-en) — Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. International Migration Outlook, 2017 - [Family migration: understanding the drivers, impacts and support needs of migrant families](https://www.gov.scot/publications/family-migration-understanding-drivers-impacts-support-needs-migrant-families-scotland/) — Expert Advisory Group on Migration and Population, 2021 - [Family Unity in the Context of Migration](https://www.unicef.org/media/58341/file/Family%20unity%20issue%20brief.pdf) — Unicef - [The climate crisis, migration, and refugees](https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-climate-crisis-migration-and-refugees/) — Podesta, J. Brookings, 2019 - [Migration, Environment and Climate Change: assessing the evidence](https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/migration_and_environment.pdf) — Laczko, F. and Aghazarm, C. International Organization for Migration, 2009 - [Facing the Challenge of Environmental Migration in Asia and the Pacific](https://www.adb.org/publications/facing-challenge-environmental-migration-asia-and-pacific) — Asian Development Bank, 2011 - [The future of climate migration](https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2022/729334/EPRS_ATA(2022)729334_EN.pdf) — Noonan, E. and Rusu, A. European Parliamentary Research Service, 2022 - [The Great Climate Migration Has Begun](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/23/magazine/climate-migration.html) — Lustgarten, A. The New York Times Magazine, 2020 - [Environmental Migrants: More than Numbers](https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/environmental-migrants-more-than-numbers) — Park, J. Our World, 2011 - [Defining ‘environmental migration’](https://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/en/climatechange/dun-gemenne.pdf) — Dun, O. and Gemenne, F. Forced Migration Review, 2008 - [Economic or Environmental Migration? The Push Factors in Niger](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2010.00644.x) — Afifi, T. International Migration, 2011 - [Environmental Dimensions of Migration](https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112223) — Hunter, L. M., Luna, J. K. Norton, R. M. Annual Review of Sociology, 2015 - [Types of Migration: The Motivations, Composition, and Early Integration Patterns of “New Migrants” in Europe](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/imre.12293) — Luthra, R., Platt, L. and Salamońska, J. International Migration Review, 2018 - [‘‘Economic Migrants’’ or ‘‘Middling Transnationals’’? East European Migrants’ Experiences of Work in the UK](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2010.00677.x) — Parutis, V. International Migration, 2014 - [Economic Migrants or Refugees from Violence?: A Time-Series Analysis of Salvadoran Migration to the United States](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/latin-american-research-review/article/economic-migrants-or-refugees-from-violence-a-timeseries-analysis-of-salvadoran-migration-to-the-united-states/897C54EF39287D2B10807E6AF344143A) — Stanley, W. D. Latin American Research Review, 2022 - [There could be 1.2 billion climate refugees by 2050. Here’s what you need to know](https://www.zurich.com/en/media/magazine/2022/there-could-be-1-2-billion-climate-refugees-by-2050-here-s-what-you-need-to-know) — McAllister, S. Zurich Insurance Group, 2022 - [Who are the “environmental migrants” in international law?](https://f3magazine.unicri.it/?p=1218) — Piasentin, E. Freedom from Fear, 2016 - [Climigration: A look to the future for environmental migrants](https://seagrant.soest.hawaii.edu/climigration/) — Millin, A. University of Hawaii, 2021 - [The haunting divide between refugee and economic migrant](https://www.ft.com/content/28ad8fae-7101-45e0-a26b-4f868002b3d2) — Ypi, L. The Financial Times, 2022 - [The world’s definition of ‘refugee’ shortchanges economic migrants](https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2022-01-02/migration-refugees-asylum-convention) — Pahnke, A. Los Angeles Times, 2022 - [Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon](https://anera1.wpenginepowered.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/LEBRefugeeReport.pdf) — Anera, 2012 - [Family migration](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/family-migration) — Migration Data Portal, 2022 - [Environmental Migration](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/environmental_migration_and_statistics) — Migration Data Portal, 2023 - [Environmental Refugee](https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/environmental-refugee/) — National Geographic - [Environmental Displacement and Migration](https://www.eli.org/migration/environmental-displacement-and-migration) — Environmental Law Institute - [Refugees, Asylum Seekers and Migrants](https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/refugees-asylum-seekers-and-migrants/) — Amnesty International - [Economic migrants or refugees?](https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/economic-migrant-or-refugee/) — Refugee Council of Australia, 2020 - [Types of migrants](https://www.striking-women.org/main-module-page/types-migrants) — Striking Women - [What is the difference between forced and voluntary migration?](https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/migration-facts/0/steps/34214) — European University Institute - [Causes and impacts relating to forced and voluntary migration](https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z8g334j/revision/1) — BBC Bitesize - [Forced migration or displacement](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/forced-migration-or-displacement) — Migration Data Portal, 2022 - [Should We Let Economic Migrants In?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aoa8_sOEXQk) — Good Morning Britain, 2022 - [The Great Displacement: Climate Migration in America](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQKdsF013yQ) — Carnegie Endowment, 2023 - [The need for family reunification -- to make families whole again](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_liyBrL0LqY) — Zion, E. TED, 2022 - [Environmental migrants - the last illusion](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WJd6LqzYye8) — Grassani, A. TEDx Talks, 2013 ## About the author: Samar El Yassir, Anera Foundation Samar El Yassir is a development expert with more than 30 years of experience in the Levant and Arabia regions. Since 2011, Samar has been the country director of Anera (American Near East Refugee Aid) in Lebanon, a development agency that provides humanitarian assistance and supports the development of Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine. She is the winner of the Humentum 2020 Operational Excellence Award for her effective and expedient response to the impact of humanitarian crises in Lebanon and the region. She is a dual national citizen, holding both Lebanese and French passports. Born in Beirut, she is a graduate of the American University of Beirut and has a post-graduate diploma from the UCL Institute of Child Health. --- # Detention of Migrants and Refugees URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/detention-of-migrants-and-refugees Published: 2023-11-21 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Martin Rozumek, Organisation for Aid to Refugees (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/martin-rozumek-organisation-for-aid-to-refugees) Category: Society Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Detention of refugees and immigrants refers to the practice of placing these groups in detention centers with bars and fences that are isolated from society. This is a state practice that is common during asylum, entry, or return procedures, and which violates the fundamental human right to liberty and freedom. Despite this only being permitted when other options are exhausted, a large number of immigrants and refugees are kept in detention centers for excessive periods of time. ## Summary - The detention of immigrants and refugees is the deprivation of their freedom in a closed detention facility. - Detention is used to prevent the unauthorized entry of refugees and immigrants or to deport them. - It is often arbitrary and without legal safeguards. - ‍ ## Subtopic 1: What Is the Detention of Migrants and Refugees? - Detention of refugees and immigrants refers to the practice of placing these groups in detention centers with bars and fences that are isolated from society. This is a state practice that is common during asylum, entry, or return procedures, and which violates the fundamental human right to liberty The detention of refugees or immigrants is the deprivation of the freedom of immigrants and refugees in host countries and constitutes an exception to the fundamental human right to liberty and freedom. In practice, refugees and immigrants are placed in detention centers with bars and fences and left isolated from society with very limited understanding of procedures and without access to any legal aid. Detention either during asylum, entry, or return procedures is a state practice that is widely used and misused on immigrants and refugees arriving without permits(i.e. illegally) to host countries. > The **immigration language** concerning deprivation of rights and liberties of refugees/immigrants rarely reflects the true nature of different restrictive measures. Detention is never presented as a deprivation of liberty taking place behind bars for many months or even years but is called an administrative or security measure etc. The detention place itself, often worse and with fewer rules than any regular prison, is never named as a prison and, rarely, as a detention center or cell but rather “a unit” or ”room”. Detainees are “clients”, taken care of by social workers and violent behavior from guards is called an “incident” or a “necessary measure”. This is common for the whole jargon in immigration law enforcement. Detention, in general, is permitted (according to Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms) but must comply with important safeguards like being the last option and leading to deportation. It should only be used after other alternative measures are exhausted (see _Alternatives to Detention_). Nevertheless, a large number of immigrants and refugees worldwide have been kept in detention centers for excessive periods both upon entry to a country or to prevent them from running away during removal or asylum procedures. International law stipulates that detained individuals must be treated in a humane and dignified manner. ## Subtopic 2: Detention of Migrants and the Law - Detaining asylum seekers and refugees is illegal according to international law; however, laws created by individual countries can be used to get around this. These laws are often created in the interest of protecting national security, public order, public health or morals, or the rights and freedo #### Legal Detention of Immigrants and Refugees General **international law** restricts the possibility of detaining asylum seekers and refugees. According to Article 31 of the 1951 Geneva Refugee Convention, penalties must not be imposed on “..._refugees coming from a territory where their life or freedom is at risk even if they come illegally. However, they should present themselves without delay to the authorities and show good cause for their illegal entry or presence_.” Article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a fundamental United Nations human rights treaty signed by 172 countries, provides the right to freedom of movement without discrimination between citizens and aliens. Restrictions to this right are permitted when they are provided by laws adopted by host countries. Such laws might be created and deemed necessary when the state believes there is a need to protect national security, public order, public health or morals, or the rights and freedoms of others. Specific regional international treaties and agreements set additional limits on the detention of immigrants and refugees. For example, the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, usually shortened to the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) protects the human rights of people in countries that belong to the Council of Europe. All 46 Member States of the Council, including the UK, have signed the Convention and must comply with the standards of the Convention including the rules on detention. Article 5 of the ECHR, gives an exhaustive list of permissible reasons for detention. These include preventing the unauthorized entry of migrants or facilitating the removal of a person. European Union law also stipulates^[[1]](https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/handbook-european-law-relating-asylum-borders-and-immigration-edition-2020) that detention is only permissible if necessary using a necessity test and certain additional requirements also need to be met, such as giving reasons for any detention and allowing the detainee to have access to speedy judicial review. Similarly, the American Convention on Human Rights (Pact of San José, Article 7, 1969) and the African Charter on Human and Peoples (Banjul Charter, 1981, Article 6) also protect individuals from unlawful detention. #### Unlawful Practices of Detention Detention of immigrants and refugees has often been used^[[2]](https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-33869-5) as a deterrence measure by many immigration countries to signal to newcomers that they should avoid the given country. Asylum seekers and refugees are frequently detained in contradiction with Article 31 of the 1951 Refugee Convention or the European Convention of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms (ECHR). They are labeled and treated as illegal immigrants without enabling them to apply for refugee status. In many countries, such as Malta, Libya^[[3]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/07/libya-un-experts-alarmed-reports-trafficking-persons-arbitrary-detention) etc., detention centers are terrible and dirty places, managed by state, non-state or criminal networks with many unlawful practices^[[4]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2012/02/immediate-action-needed-address-conditions-detention-latin-america) resulting in torture and inhumane and degrading treatment of refugees. Lawyers and aid organizations are often not allowed to visit migrants and refugees in detention centers to provide legal intervention services to help them get out, register their asylum requests, make their asylum cases heard, or to address ill-treatment issues. There are numerous efforts from different bodies and coalitions to address the problem of unlawful detention of immigrants and refugees. The largest is the [International Detention Coalition](https://idcoalition.org/about/) (IDC), which is a global network of more than 400 organizations, groups and individuals, as well as representatives of communities impacted by immigration detention. It is based in over 100 countries. IDC works on several issues related to immigrant detention such as promoting different alternatives to detention and presenting community placement models. IDC also focuses on the involvement of academia, improving laws and policies, direct services for migrants and refugees, advocacy, and community organization. ## Subtopic 3: Alternatives to Detention - In countries in which detention is seen as a last resort, various alternatives exist. These are made up of policies and practices that ensure people are not detained as a result of their migration status, though they are rarely utilized. These include, but are not limited to, the individual reportin Alternatives to detention are defined^[[5]](https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/alternatives-immigration-detention-overview) as any legislation, policy, or practice, formal or informal, that ensures people are not detained for reasons relating to their migration status. Alternatives to detention might include a variety of measures, which, in practice, are used only rarely by states. Alternatives to detention can include the following: 1. reporting obligations, such as weekly reporting to the police or immigration authorities at regular intervals; 2. obligation to surrender passports or travel documents; 3. residence requirements, such as living and staying at a particular address; 4. release on bail with or without guarantees; 5. guarantor requirements - someone else guarantees the stay of the person in a designated place; 6. release to care worker support, community care plan, or mental health support team; 7. electronic monitoring, such as tagging; 8. release on recognizance (i.e., no detention and no conditions on release) In a number of national and regional legal systems, detention is only allowed^[[6]](https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/guide_art_5_eng) as a last resort. Alternatives must first be exhausted before the detention is ordered unless such alternatives cannot be applied effectively in the individual case. Cases like this might include^[[7]](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32008L0115) if a person lies about their identity, has used drugs, or has absconded in the past without returning to their home country. ## Subtopic 4: Monitoring of detention - Various national and international bodies carry out visits to detention centers in order to assess the conditions inside. This form of monitoring has been shown to be effective in reducing the ill-treatment of refugees and immigrants. Despite the findings not being legally binding, they are effectiv It is increasingly recognized^[[8]](https://idcoalition.org/publication/monitoring-immigration-detention-a-practical-guide/) that monitoring detention sites through regular and unannounced observations constitutes one of the most effective ways to prevent torture and ill-treatment of refugees and immigrants. Visits can be carried out by international bodies, such as the [European Committee for the Prevention of Torture](https://www.coe.int/en/web/cpt), international organizations such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), or they might be carried out at the national level, for example by the national ombudsman. For instance, the [Czech Ombudsman Office](https://www.ochrance.cz/en/potrebuji-pomoc/omezeni-na-svobode/) has the power to visit detention centers without prior notice. Various international bodies encourage and empower^[[9]](https://www.osce.org/odihr/29845) non-governmental organizations to conduct visits to detention centers and report their findings. The findings of the monitoring bodies are not binding for the states but they are often respected or at least reported^[[10]](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cornwall-66272029) by local media and addressed^[[11]](https://www.amnestyusa.org/updates/the-nightmarish-detention-of-us-immigrants/) by human rights defenders. ## Subtopic 5: Effects of and Arguments For & Against Migrant Detention - Detention has extremely negative consequences for those detained, which, in many countries, includes children and unaccompanied minors. In addition, it is costly and often does not end up with the individual being deported. However, from the state’s perspective, detention is the easiest way to ensur Detention is a severe interference to the right to freedom of movement. Detention, with all its negative consequences on the physical and mental well being of detainees considered, imposed for a mere administrative offense (irregular border crossing or staying in the country without a permit), is a harsher punishment than in the case of many other crimes. It is a very costly measure, which often does not serve its purpose - i.e. to enforce deportation. In many countries, children and unaccompanied minors are detained too. From the state’s point of view, detention serves to enforce deportation in the easiest possible way because the detained person is always at disposal for the execution of the return to his or her country of origin. Harsh detention conditions are believed by many states as a tool to discourage immigrants and refugees from entering that particular country or preventing them from using particular migration routes. Such practices are usually at the expense of other (neighboring) countries. ## Subtopic 6: Alternatives to Migrant Detention & Deterrence Strategies - As at-risk individuals in forced displacement scenarios, refugees and immigrants should be treated in a humane and sensitive way. Thus, policies including refugee resettlement and relocation, the use of humanitarian corridors, and more open immigration programs should be explored and implemented as Instead of detention, more legal alternatives for the arrival of refugees and immigrants should be explored and introduced such as resettlement of refugees, relocation of refugees, use of humanitarian corridors, more open immigration programs, etc. As a rule, refugees, as persons at risk in forced displacement situations, should not be detained but treated in a humane and sensitive way. In order to prevent irregular arrivals or irregular stays of immigrants, information campaigns in countries of origin of the immigrant should be organized and labor migration programs opened up. On the territory of the host country, the alternatives to detention discussed above should be explored and used much more often. In order to enforce the return of irregular migrants, better working readmission agreements with their countries of origin should be implemented, and better use of voluntary returns promoted. ## Sources and further reading - [Child Migration and the Law: Status, detention and court proceedings](https://www.unicef-irc.org/article/1385-child-migration-and-the-law-status-detention-and-court-proceedings.html) — Unicef, 2016 - [Immigration detention is harmful to health – alternatives to detention should be used](https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/04-05-2022-immigration-detention-is-harmful-to-health---alternatives-to-detention-should-be-used) — World Health Organization, 2022 - [Punishment and Profits: Immigration Detention](https://www.aljazeera.com/program/fault-lines/2012/4/17/punishment-and-profits-immigration-detention) — Al Jazeera, 2012 - [Behind the Shocking Conditions of Malaysia's Immigrant Detention Centres](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGK-d4dqLMg) — Journeyman Pictures, 2016 - [21st Century: Migrants Despair In Italy's Detention Centres](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DzBVNOBMz0) — Channels Television, 2016 - [Detention centres for migrants slammed as 'Spanish Guantanamos'](https://www.france24.com/en/20161128-focus-spain-detention-centres-illegal-immigrants-deportation-critics-guantanamos) — France 24, 2016 - [Hungary Is Locking Up Migrants In Shipping Containers To Stop Border Crossings](https://www.vice.com/en/article/nedgzg/hungary-locking-up-migrants-in-shipping-containers-to-stop-border-crossings) — VICE News, 2017 - [Libya: the migrant trap](https://www.aljazeera.com/program/people-power/2014/5/8/libya-the-migrant-trap) — Al Jazeera, 2014 - [Starvation, disease and death in Libyan migrant detention centre](https://www.channel4.com/news/starvation-disease-and-death-at-libya-migrant-detention-centre) — Channel 4 News, 2019 - [Detained by Militias: Libya's Migrant Trade](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h3f380cYlPM) — VICE News, 2015 - [Drowning for Freedom: Libya’s Migrant Jails](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ih1iicUd3ls) — VICE News, 2015 - [Escaping Hell: Libya’s Migrant Jails](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TlpLRYTG9RQ) — VICE News, 2015 - [Inside Australia's Infamous Pacific Island Detention Centre](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2PdudG2jtc) — Journeyman Pictures, 2003 - [Detained in Italy : Misery for Migrants and Refugees](https://media.un.org/en/asset/k1f/k1fnvmtllj) — United Nations, 2015 - [Why some say Canada’s immigration detention centres are like prisons](https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/2032494659557) — CBC News, 2022 - [The continuum of violence in immigration detention in Greece](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Z9w90VVyNc) — University of Oxford, 2022 - [A brutal life for migrants in Libya: trafficking, detention or death en route to Europe](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/a-brutal-life-for-migrants-in-libya-trafficking-detention-or-death-en-route-to-europe) — PBS News, 2018 - [What Really Happens In Migrant Detention Centres?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FmH5Ysk1BsA) — Journeyman Pictures, 2016 - [Migration Detention and Alternatives to Detention](https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/documents/migration-detention-and-alternatives-to-detention.pdf) — International Organization for Migration - [Interactive Map - U.S. Immigration Detention](https://www.freedomforimmigrants.org/map) — Freedom for Immigrants - [Immigration detention statistics](https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-statistics/statistics/visa-statistics/live/immigration-detention) — Australian Government, Department of Home Affairs - [Detention Centres Map](https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/detention-centres/map-view) — Global Detention Project - [Migrant Detention in the European Union: A Thriving Business](https://migreurop.org/IMG/pdf/migrant-detention-eu-en.pdf) — Arbogast, L. Migreurop, 2016 - [Immigrants and Asylum-Seekers Deserve Humane Alternatives To Detention](https://www.americanprogress.org/article/immigrants-and-asylum-seekers-deserve-humane-alternatives-to-detention/) — Truong, T. Q. Center for American Progress, 2022 - [The impact of immigration detention on mental health: a systematic review](https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-018-1945-y) — von Werthern, M.et al. BioMed Central: Springer, 2018 - [U.S. Detention of Child Migrants](https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-detention-child-migrants) — Cheatham, A. and Roy, D. Council on Foreign Relations, 2021 - [Detention of Asylum Seekers and Irregular Migrants and the Rule of Law](https://www.europeanlawinstitute.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/p_eli/Publications/ELI_Statement_on_Detention_and_the_Rule_of_Law.pdf) — Zalar, B. et al. European Law Institute, 2017 - [Immigration Detention and Alternatives to Detention in the Asia-Pacific Region](https://migrationnetwork.un.org/system/files/docs/ATD%20REPORT-%20Final.pdf) — United Nations Network on Migration, 2020 - [Immigration Detention and Alternatives to Detention in the Asia-Pacific Region - Annex: Country Profiles](https://migrationnetwork.un.org/system/files/docs/ATD%20FINAL%20COUNTRY%20PROFILES-%20final.pdf) — United Nations Network on Migration, 2020 - [Boundaries of liberty - Asylum and de facto detention in Europe](https://asylumineurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/boundariesliberty.pdf) — Mouzourakis, M. and Pollet, K.. European Council on Refugees and Exiles, 2020 - [Global Strategy Beyond Detention: Final Progress Report 2014 - 2019](https://www.unhcr.org/protection/detention/5fa26ed64/unhcr-global-strategy-beyond-detention-final-progress-report-2014-2019.html) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2020 - [Addressing the health challenges in immigration detention, and alternatives to detention](https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/353569/9789289057929-eng.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y) — Puthoopparambil, S.J. and Matta, L. World Health Organization, 2022 - [Detained and Dehumanised: The impact of immigration detention](https://www.jrsuk.net/detentionreport/) — Jesuit Refugee Service, 2020 - [Administrative detention of migrants](https://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/migration/taskforce/docs/administrativedetentionrev5.pdf) — Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights - [Detention and alternatives to detention in international protection and return procedures](https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2022-05/EMN_Study_on_detention_0.pdf) — European Migration Network, 2022 - [Legal and practical aspects of effective alternatives to detention in the context of migration](https://edoc.coe.int/en/migration/7961-legal-and-practical-aspects-of-effective-alternatives-to-detention-in-the-context-of-migration.html) — Council of Europe, 2018 - [Alternatives to Immigration Detention: An Overview](https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/alternatives-immigration-detention-overview) — American Immigration Council, 2022 - [Nearly There, but Never Further Away](https://europeslamsitsgates.foreignpolicy.com/part-3-nearly-there-but-never-further-away-libya-africa-europe-EU-militias-migration) — Tinti, P. Foreign Policy, 2017 - [Overflowing Toilets, Bedbugs and High Heat: Inside Mexico’s Migrant Detention Centers](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/03/world/americas/mexico-migration-conditions.html) — Semple, K. The New York Times, 2019 - [Hungry, Scared and Sick: Inside the Migrant Detention Center in Clint, Tex.](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/07/06/us/migrants-border-patrol-clint.html) — Romero, S. et al. The New York Times, 2019 - [‘I was a prisoner of Mexico’s US-backed migrant detention regime’](https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2023/2/24/i-was-a-prisoner-of-mexicos-us-backed-migrant-detention-regime) — Fernández, B. Al Jazeera, 2023 - [Gaining Ground: Promising Practice to Reduce & End Immigration Detention](https://idcoalition.org/publication/gaining-ground-promising-practice-to-reduce-end-immigration-detention/) — International Detention Coalition, 2022 - [Human rights violations at international borders: trends, prevention and accountability](https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G22/328/57/PDF/G2232857.pdf?OpenElement) — Morales, F. G. United Nations Human Rights Council, 2022 - [Detention](https://www.unhcr.org/detention) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - [Detention](https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/networks/european-migration-network-emn/emn-asylum-and-migration-glossary/glossary/detention_en) — European Commission - [What is immigration detention?](https://aviddetention.org.uk/immigration-detention/what-immigration-detention#:~:text=Immigration%20detention%20is%20the%20practice,process%2C%20not%20a%20criminal%20procedure.) — Association of Visitors to Immigration Detainees - [What is immigration detention? And other frequently asked questions](https://idcoalition.org/about/what-is-detention/) — International Detention Coalition - [Detention Centres](https://rfmsot.apps01.yorku.ca/glossary-of-terms/detention-centres/) — Canadian Association for Refugee and Forced Migration Studies - [Administrative detention of migrants](https://www.coe.int/en/web/cdcj/activities/administrative-detention-migrants) — Council of Europe - [Unaccompanied migrant minors in detention](https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/news/2019/feb/echr-unaccompanied-migrant-minors-detention.pdf) — European Court of Human Rights, 2018 - [Guidelines on the applicable criteria and standards relating to the detention of asylum-seekers and alternatives to detention](https://www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-detention-guidelines) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2012 - [Detention of third country nationals in return procedures](https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2010/detention-third-country-nationals-return-procedures) — Fundamental Rights Agency, 2010 - [Immigration Detention in the United States by Agency](https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/immigration-detention-united-states-agency) — American Immigration Council, 2020 - [Handbook on European law relating to asylum, borders and immigration](https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/handbook-european-law-relating-asylum-borders-and-immigration-edition-2020) — Fundamental Rights Agency, 2020 - [How migrant children react to "psychological trauma" at detention centers](https://www.cbsnews.com/video/how-migrant-children-react-to-psychological-trauma-at-detention-centers/) — CBS News, 2019 - [Horrific conditions revealed in migrant detention centers](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gSp3GLwbi1c) — Democracy Now!, 2019 - [Human rights situation of migrants and detention centers in the United States](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xq4t_GwkQok) — Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 2021 - [Photographer documents immigration and life inside detention facility](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/photographer-documents-immigration-and-life-inside-detention-facility) — PBS News, 2022 - [Immigration Detention: Policy Challenges](https://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/primers/immigration-detention-policy-challenges/) — The Migration Observatory, 2011 - [Inside the Migrant Detention Center in Clint, Tex.](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/01/podcasts/the-daily/migrant-children-border-detention-clint-texas.html) — Barbaro, M. The New York Times, 2019 ## About the author: Martin Rozumek, Organisation for Aid to Refugees Martin Rozumek has worked as the Executive Director of the Organization for Aid to Refugees (OPU), Prague, Czech Republic since 2002. Martin is a lawyer and holds a doctoral degree in international public law from the Masaryk University in Brno, Czech Republic. He has worked in various positions with UNHCR in the Czech Republic and Pakistan, as well as at the Brno-based Society of Citizens Assisting Immigrants and in private law-firms. He was a head of the Czech Government Human Rights Committee for Rights of Foreigners. His expertise includes refugee and immigration law and practices, EU law, advocacy, and international human rights law. He is a Fulbright fellow from 2022-2023 researching climate migration at University of California San Diego and a lecturer at University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ustí nad Labem. The Organization for Aid to Refugees was founded in 1991 as a civic association. OPU is a non-governmental and non-profit organization providing refugees and other foreigners in the Czech Republic with legal and social assistance, including legal representation in 5 Czech cities. --- # Connections Between Biodiversity and Climate Change URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/connections-between-biodiversity-and-climate-change Published: 2023-11-21 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Himangana Gupta, United Nations University (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/himangana-gupta-united-nations-university) Category: Living Conditions Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Global biodiversity is facing a severe decline due to overexploitation, habitat loss, and climate change. The world is already experiencing its sixth mass biological extinction, with species disappearing up to 1000 times faster than the normal rate. Significant changes in landscapes and ecosystems have led to the loss of natural habitats and species. The decline of biodiversity poses a threat to human well-being and global food security. Urgent actions are needed to protect and preserve biodiversity for the future. ## Summary - Biodiversity is vital for human life, offering food, medicines, and more. - Human activities drive biodiversity loss, with the Earth’s sixth mass extinction underway. - A few strategies exist to conserve and restore ecosystems while tackling climate change. - ‍ ## Subtopic 1: Current Status and Trends of Global Biodiversity - Global biodiversity is facing a severe decline due to overexploitation, habitat loss, and climate change. The world is already experiencing its sixth mass biological extinction, with species disappearing up to 1000 times faster than the normal rate. Significant changes in landscapes and ecosystems h Biodiversity is the living fabric of our planet. Human life and prosperity depend on it. It supports the functioning of ecosystems. It provides us with food, fresh water, medicines, and healthcare. It brings all kinds of benefits for humans and nature. Likewise, it helps^[1] with disease regulation, habitat creation, water purification, and pollination. Biodiversity contributes to climate change mitigation and adaptation, but is also affected by climate change^[[2]](https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-41-en.pdf) . > **Mitigation**and **adaptation** are two different strategies that are used to respond to climate change. Mitigation means reducing the causes of climate change, such as the emission of greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. Adaptation means adjusting to the effects of climate change, such as preparing for the changes in temperature, precipitation, sea level, and biodiversity. Biodiversity also has cultural benefits. Depending on the animals, plants, and environments around us, we perceive nature differently. Our traditions, spiritual beliefs, and cultures strongly revolve around it. Therefore, the current decline in biodiversity does not only affect the essential benefits of nature, but also impacts us culturally and spiritually. Such values are hard to measure, but they remain integral to our well-being. Nature has changed^[[3]](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1400253) faster in the last 50 years than it ever has at any time in human history. Because of overexploitation, habitat loss, and climate change, species are disappearing faster than expected. As a result, the world is already facing its sixth mass biological extinction. As per the available studies, approximately 173 species went extinct between 2001 and 2014. This is 25 times faster than the normal extinction rate. In the past 100 years, more than 400 vertebrates have gone extinct due to large-scale human interference with nature. These animal species living on land face alarming rates of population loss. This is even the case for species that are not considered to be at high risk of extinction. When one species in the ecosystem disappears, it affects^[[4]](https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1922686117) the entire ecosystem and pushes other species towards annihilation. The World Economic Forum identifies biodiversity loss as one of the world’s most important existential threats. It has continued to top the chart at fourth position in 2020 and fifth position in 2021, with the risk of impacting^[[5]](https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-risks-report-2021/) the global economy significantly. The world's marine fish population is decreasing because of overfishing. The number of fish being caught at unsustainable levels — when the rate of fishing exceeds the fish population's ability to reproduce — has been increasing since the late 1970s. Indeed, while 90% of fish were considered to be caught sustainably in 1974, that number dropped^[[6]](https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc0461en) to less than 65% in 2019. There are more signs of deterioration signs of deterioration^[[7]](https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment) worldwide. For instance, since 1970, global agricultural crop production has tripled, reaching USD 2.6 trillion in 2016. Similarly, the raw timber harvest has increased by 45%, and the forest industry now supports around 13.2 million jobs. However, this growth has come at a cost. Indeed, research shows these gains in production will likely not be sustainable for the environment in the long run. Significant changes have occurred^[[8]](https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment) in our landscapes and ecosystems, affecting land and water surfaces. 85% of wetlands have been lost globally in recent years, showing alarming levels of degradation. With the loss of natural habitats and ecosystems, many local varieties of plants and animals have disappeared. Experts at the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services warn that if the trend continues, half of all species could disappear within 50 years. The decrease in the insect population, particularly pollinators — animals that transport pollen and contribute to the survival of plant species — could also directly disturb the functioning of ecosystems. It could go as far as threatening global food security^[[9]](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1251817) for human beings. In 1995, experts found^[[10]](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.269.5222.347) that current extinction rates are 100 to 1000 times higher as compared to before the appearance of human beings. This research was further reviewed^[[11]](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1246752) in 2014. It showed lapses in efforts to protect biodiversity in protected areas, and the potential for increases in extinction rates in years to come. In addition, local crop varieties are already disappearing due to monoculture farming – growing only one type of crop. Such diversity loss, including genetic diversity, poses a serious risk^[[12]](https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment) to global food security. The biodiversity in and around production systems is indeed vital for food security and sustainable development. Worldwide, crop and livestock production has increased to support the growing needs of the global population. But this has come at the cost^[[13]](https://www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/CA3129EN.pdf) of major disruptions of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity services such as pollination and disease control. This data shows that biodiversity is clearly in a poor state. ## Subtopic 2: The Causes of Biodiversity Loss - Biodiversity loss is driven by five main factors: habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, an increase in human population, and overexploitation of natural resources. Climate change has also emerged as a significant contributor to biodiversity decline, altering habitats and increasing extin Researchers identified five key drivers^[[14]](https://wayback.archive-it.org/12090/20131126225134/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/biodiversity/pdf/causes_biodiv_loss.pdf) of biodiversity loss. These are habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, an increase in human population, and overexploitation of natural resources. However, climate change is now also considered^[[15]](https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment) a significant cause of biodiversity loss that increases the impact of other factors on nature and human well-being. Indeed, it can change habitat distribution and increase extinctions. Nearly one-third of plant and animal species could face extinction^[[16]](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1913007117) as a result of climate change. Together, the drivers of biodiversity loss have significantly altered nature^[[17]](https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment) in most parts of the world. Changes related to human activity are particularly significant. Human activity creates conditions for fast biological evolution. Among these activities, land-use change – the modification of natural land for human activities – has had the worst impact on ecosystems since 1970. The exploitation of animals, plants, and other organisms poses another critical threat. This exploitation primarily occurs through harvesting, logging, hunting, and fishing. Besides the above, pollution is also increasing. Although global trends vary, air, water and soil pollution have continued to rise in some areas. Marine plastic pollution, in particular, has increased over time^[[18]](https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2020-020-En.pdf) . Over 300 million tons of plastic are produced every year, and 14 million tons of plastic end up in the ocean, making up 80% of all marine debris. Marine species ingest or become entangled in plastic debris, causing severe injuries and death^[[19]](https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0265) . Plastic pollution is therefore a significant threat to marine life and food safety. It can affect humans through the food chain due to their consumption of animal-based diets that contain plastic components absorbed from polluted environments. Another major risk to biodiversity is through biological invasions. Nearly one-fifth of the Earth’s surface is at risk of plant and animal invasions, impacting native species, ecosystem services, economies and human health. The rate of introduction of new invasive alien species – species that are not native to the area – seems higher than ever before^[[20]](https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment) and shows no signs of slowing. This leads to the invasion of ecosystems and the loss of local diversity, impacting nature and habitats negatively. ## Subtopic 3: Impact of Biodiversity Loss on Human Beings - The decline of biodiversity challenges all human beings, but its impacts will be most severely felt by vulnerable communities with limited capacity to adapt to climate change. Threatened land and ocean ecosystems have been able to cope with human-made emissions in the past, but now face critical thr Current trends of biodiversity loss and the strain on natural ecosystems further challenge the climate adaptation of vulnerable populations. Land and ocean ecosystems play a crucial role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, absorbing 54% of human-made emissions in the past decade. Therefore, it is essential to protect these ecosystems to achieve a balance^[[21]](https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/wwf_our_climates_secret_ally_uncovering_the_story_of_nature_in_the_ipcc_ar6.pdf) between the greenhouse gases we produce and remove. But these ecosystems are facing growing threats, pushing the world beyond planetary boundaries. In other words, biodiversity loss is reaching a critical threshold. This could lead to irreversible consequences for the health of the planet and its ecosystems. This loss of diversity, including genetic diversity (the variety of genetic traits within species), poses a serious risk to global food security. It weakens the resilience of agricultural systems against threats such as pests, pathogens, and climate change. Historical examples, such as the Irish Great Famine (1845-1849), demonstrate^[[22]](https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Famine-Irish-history/Great-Famine-relief-efforts) that a lack of crop variety and over-reliance on a few high-yielding varieties can lead to country-wide famines. The Irish Great Famine was caused by reduced genetic variety. Because the same crop was used over and over again, the entire crop species became susceptible to disease. This could have been prevented with more agricultural diversity. Another more recent example is the sudden drought in western Russia^[[23]](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2021.100383) in the summer of 2010, caused by the heat wave that affected wheat production in the country. As Russia was a major exporter of wheat, this drought led to a number of concerns. These concerns were connected to questions of global food security, self-sufficiency, and a rise in the prices of wheat. Food security thus faces a double-edged sword from both biodiversity loss and climate change. Similarly, the healthcare sector faces challenges due to the decline of biodiversity. The pharmaceutical industry relies on a variety of chemical products derived from medicinal plants and microorganisms found in diverse environments. The loss of these resources can affect medical research and the development of treatments. Increasingly, studies are showing that biodiversity and human infectious diseases are intricately linked^[[24]](https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00258-8) . This is because human pressure on biodiversity increases the risk of infectious diseases. Zoonoses – diseases transmitted from other animal species to humans – account for approximately 60% of all infectious diseases and 75% of emerging infectious diseases in humans. This phenomenon is likely to be the direct result of increased contact between humans, wildlife and livestock. These interactions happen more frequently on the frontier of human expansion because of changes to the natural landscape and increased encounters with animals. This is particularly the case in previously human-free forest areas. There has been a lack of interest from both society and politics in biodiversity protection the world over. Nature is primarily managed by local communities that depend on it for their daily needs. In territories managed by indigenous peoples, nature is generally declining less rapidly as compared to other areas controlled by governments or local authorities. Though the implementation of policies and actions to conserve and preserve nature has progressed, it is not sufficient^[[25]](https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment) to reduce the impact of all drivers of biodiversity loss. Such efforts to preserve biodiversity will only work under two conditions^[[26]](https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-02341-1) . Firstly, they need to address the reasons for deforestation, whether they are economic or cultural. Secondly, they must also tackle the dependence of poor people living in rural areas on hunting and trading wild animals. ## Subtopic 4: Balancing climate action to protect the environment: strategies and frameworks - In 1992, the Rio Earth Summit recognized the importance of climate change and biodiversity and led to the adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Climate change received more attention, leaving biodiversity at risk of neglect. In 1992, an international summit known as the Rio Earth Summit (or United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) was held. It recognized the equal importance of climate change and biodiversity. At the end of the summit, world leaders adopted^[[27]](https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992) two conventions: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). While the UNFCCC focused more on climate mitigation, the CBD looked into conservation and sustainable use of resources. They started on diverging paths, until leaders realized that both were inextricably linked to each other. Being a global issue of greenhouse gas emissions, climate change received more political, scientific, and public attention than biodiversity, which was considered only a national resource. Indeed, climate change was perceived as linked to the health of the economy. Meanwhile, biodiversity was seen as linked to the health of nature. While the economy had long been part of collective consciousness, nature had not. Biodiversity faced a higher risk of being left behind. Two solutions to climate change have been in place to protect biodiversity: afforestation (planting trees on land that was not previously forested) and reforestation (planting trees on previously forested land). This was mainly considered a mitigation approach, which involved storing atmospheric carbon in environments where trees can grow fast. However, such approaches never accounted^[[28]](https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cfa/ifr/2018/00000020/00000001/art00008;jsessionid=1rh5nhencssfm.x-ic-live-03) for biodiversity or promoted its conservation. Instead, it had a negative impact on species and ecosystems. This turned out to be a major gap in climate action. However, in recent years, society realized the importance of protecting nature. As a result, the debate on being nature-positive started to overtake the earlier “forest for storage” thinking. This has led to concrete progress in the protection of biodiversity. Almost 100 countries have now incorporated biodiversity values into their national accounting systems. The global rate of deforestation has declined by about a third over the past decade. Fishing practices have been efficiently adjusted in some places, leading to an increase in fish stocks. More areas in the world are now officially protected. In concrete terms, the protection of areas of importance for biodiversity has increased^[[29]](https://www.cbd.int/gbo/) from 29 to 44% over the 2000-2020 period. All these facts point to the increased care for biodiversity among policymakers worldwide. In order to tackle the issues of climate change and biodiversity together, a few approaches surfaced in recent years. The first such attempt was the introduction of Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA). EbA is defined^[[30]](https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-41-en.pdf) as the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change while strengthening the resilience of communities. Simultaneously under the UNFCCC, the concept of REDD+ emerged in 2007. It stands for “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks”. More recently, the concepts of OECMs (Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures) and Nature-based solutions (NbS) came into being. Many EbA and REDD+ approaches are seen as NbS now. All these strategies have a common priority: acting on nature and its resources to solve the climate problem while keeping nature intact. Some more details on these approaches are presented below. #### _Ecosystem-based approaches to climate change adaptation (EbA)_ Ecosystem-based approaches (EbA) are defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity as the use of nature’s services to help communities adapt to the impacts of climate change. It involves^[[31]](https://www.cbd.int/sbstta/sbstta-22-sbi-2/EbA-Eco-DRR-Guidelines-en.pdf) the conservation and restoration of ecosystems, such as forests, wetlands, and coastal areas, to enhance their resilience. This gives us benefits such as flood protection, water regulation, and livelihood support. For instance, one way to do EbA is by improving how we manage forests. Reducing deforestation, preventing forest degradation, and promoting sustainable forest removal can help make forests sustainable. It can enhance carbon storage in trees, thus supporting climate mitigation, but it can also help ecosystems and species survival in the short and long term. #### _Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs)_ Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) are places outside of protected areas that promote the conservation of nature on a larger scale. Instead of only focusing on specific parts of nature, like vulnerable habitats or species, OECMs encompass many different aspects of the environment. This may include green infrastructure in cities and territories managed by local and indigenous people. This network beyond protected areas improves the flow of ecosystem services while increasing climate adaptation benefits. #### _Reducing emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)_ Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (or REDD+) is a UNFCCC program. Its goal is the promotion of sustainable forest management and conservation. 47 countries are involved. Most of them are developing countries which are engaging in efforts to slow down deforestation and forest degradation. A key goal is to enhance forest carbon stocks (the “+” in REDD+). Brazil’s [Amazon Fund](https://www.fundoamazonia.gov.br/en/home/) is a prominent REDD+ activity. Since 2008, this financial mechanism supports projects in the Amazon rainforest. The fund has attracted important international contributions to promote sustainable development. It has supported a range of causes, including law enforcement, indigenous land rights, and sustainable livelihoods. Sustainable livelihoods mean finding ways for local communities to support themselves without harming the environment in the future. With the Amazon Fund, this means helping communities thrive economically while preserving the rainforest. #### _Nature-based Solutions (NbS)_ Many of the above-mentioned policy approaches now seem to fall under the broad category of NbS. NbS means using the resources of ecosystems to address the challenges posed by climate change. These stakes include^[[32]](https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2020-020-En.pdf) human health, food and water security, and disaster risk reduction. These approaches correspond to policies that protect, manage, or restore these ecosystems. NbS offer multiple benefits at once. They promote human well-being, biodiversity, and climate mitigation and adaptation. Examples include landscape approaches, sustainable agriculture, and ecosystem restoration. To conclude, Ecosystem-based approaches and OECMs concentrate on ecosystem conservation and restoration, while REDD+ targets the decrease of emissions stemming from deforestation. Nature-based Solutions encompass a broader range of policies and strategies that use ecosystems to tackle climate change and promote multiple benefits simultaneously. ## Sources and further reading - [Why is biodiversity important - with Sir David Attenborough](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GlWNuzrqe7U) — The Royal Society, 2021 - [Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability - Full Video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SDRxfuEvqGg) — Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022 - [Climate Change and Its Impact on The Environment : Causes and Effects of Climate Change](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qiYBP-RVx20&t=52s) — Not Complicated, 2021 - [The Hidden Impacts of Climate Change](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6GRYrv2e3M) — VICE News, 2015 - [Causes and Effects of Climate Change / National Geographic](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G4H1N_yXBiA) — National Geographic, 2017 - [Climate and Biodiversity Crisis: How to deliver a nature-positive future](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fQZQ-benW9Y) — Environment Agency Tv, 2021 - [How Does Climate Change Impacts Plants and Animals?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yD6khRIL0tc) — Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, 2017 - [Racing Extinction](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dETKkMYVWUw) — Psihoyos, L. Oceanic Preservation Society, 2015 - [Chasing Coral](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGGBGcjdjXA) — Orlowski, J. Netflix, 2017 - [IUCN Red List (Database on threatened species status)](https://www.iucnredlist.org/) — International Union for Conservation of Nature - [Biodiversity: Why the nature crisis matters, in five graphics](https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-54357899) — BBC News, 2020 - [The Future of Biodiversity](https://www.reuters.com/graphics/GLOBAL-ENVIRONMENT/BIODIVERSITY/byvrlldknve/) — Reuters - [6 charts that show the state of biodiversity and nature loss - and how we can go 'nature positive'](https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/nature-loss-biodiversity-wwf/) — World Economic Forum, 2022 - [Biodiversity](https://ourworldindata.org/biodiversity) — Our World in Data - [Impacts of Climate Change](https://www.epa.gov/climatechange-science/impacts-climate-change) — United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2022 - [The biodiversity crisis in numbers - a visual guide](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/06/the-biodiversity-crisis-in-numbers-a-visual-guide-aoe) — Greenfield, P. The Guardian, 2022 - [Animals Are Running Out of Places to Live](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/12/09/climate/biodiversity-habitat-loss-climate.html) — Einhorn, C. and Leatherby, L. The New York Times, 2022 - [Why losing Australia’s biodiversity matters for human health](https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/why-losing-australias-biodiversity-matters-for-human-health/) — Cosmos, 2023 - [What is biodiversity and how are we protecting it?](https://www.bbc.com/news/explainers-60823267) — Stallard, E. BBC News, 2023 - [The Climate and Biodiversity Crises Can’t Be Approached as Two Separate Things](https://www.awi.de/en/about-us/service/press/single-view/klimakrise-und-biodiversitaetskrise-duerfen-nicht-isoliert-betrachtet-werden.html) — Alfred Wegener Institute, 2023 - [Four Ways to Tackle the Climate and Biodiversity Crises Simultaneously](https://theconversation.com/four-ways-to-tackle-the-climate-and-biodiversity-crises-simultaneously-162631) — Smith, P., Parmesan, C. and Maslin, M. The Conversation, 2021 - [Landmark U.N. deals highlight need to see ties between climate and biodiversity](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2023/04/02/commentary/world-commentary/biodiversity-un-synergies/) — Gupta, H. The Japan Times, 2023 - [IPCC Sixth Assessment Report - Biodiversity Fact Sheet](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Biodiversity.pdf) — Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022 - [WWF Living Planet Report 2022](https://wwflpr.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/lpr_2022_full_report.pdf) — WWF, 2022 - [Summary for Policymakers of the IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services](https://www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/inline/files/ipbes_global_assessment_report_summary_for_policymakers.pdf) — Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, 2019 - [Connecting biodiversity and climate change mitigation and adaptation: Report of the second ad hoc technical expert group on biodiversity and climate change](https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/ahteg-brochure-en.pdf) — Convention on Biological Diversity, 2009 - [Role of Keystone Species in an Ecosystem](https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/role-keystone-species-ecosystem/) — National Geographic - [Introduction to Biology: Biodiversity](https://www.coursera.org/learn/introduction-to-biology-biodiversity?irclickid=V5Sx5M277xyPT1IyXUS9p1tJUkF1nqQtAyAjSU0&irgwc=1&utm_medium=partners&utm_source=impact&utm_campaign=315774&utm_content=b2c) — Rice University - [Biodiversity and conservation](https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biodiversity-and-conservation) — Khan Academy - [Biodiversity](https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m001fwh4) — BBC Inside Science, 2022 - [What is biodiversity and why does it matter to us?](https://www.ted.com/talks/asmund_asdal_what_is_biodiversity_and_why_does_it_matter_to_us) — Asdal A. TEDx, 2019 - [The case against the concept of biodiversity](https://www.vox.com/22584103/biodiversity-species-conservation-debate) — Vox, 2021 - [Can people have a positive impact on biodiversity?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EfDb4EXd9kc&t) — Murphy, K. TedX, 2018 - [Ecosystem Services](https://open.spotify.com/show/4vAsgQB2ENeuIAPwo4Blpy) — Beyond Colouring-In: A Geography Podcast, 2022 - [Thirty years after the Earth Summit](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/thirty-years-after-the-earth-summit/id262026995?i=1000566688419) — BBC World Service, 2023 - [Nature-based Solutions](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKL33uSbKTM) — Resilience: The Global Adaptation Podcast, 2021 - [Nature Based Solutions](https://theplanetpod.com/special/nature-based-solutions/) — The Climate Papers, 2021 ## About the author: Himangana Gupta, United Nations University Himangana Gupta is a Research Fellow and Academic Associate at the United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), where she currently works on climate, biodiversity and sustainability. Previously, she played a pivotal role in shaping India’s Biennial Update Reports to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as Programme Officer at the Indian Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. She is also serving as a Lead Author with the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Dr Gupta holds a PhD focused on climate and biodiversity policy. She has contributed to key Indian climate publications and published extensively on climate issues impacting rural livelihoods and marginalized groups. --- # Human Rights Violations and Advocacy URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/human-rights-violations-and-advocacy Published: 2023-11-21 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Melissa Martinez, University of Mary Washington (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/melissa-martinez-university-of-mary-washington) Category: Political System Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) States have several options to raise awareness of human rights violations on the global stage. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the United Nations was the initial step for the process of norms pertaining human rights in the international sphere. Several treaties that support human rights, which require signatures and ratification from participating states, have been established since the Declaration. ## Summary - There are various international treaties and mechanisms aimed at upholding human rights. - Holding states accountable for human rights violations is often challenging due to a lack of political will and resources. - Local and international organizations are central to promoting human rights and pressuring states for compliance. - Protests, times of war, and the use of dehumanizing language are often contributing factors to human rights abuses. - Some people criticize international courts, especially the International Criminal Court, for being biased. ## Subtopic 1: International Commitments for Human Rights - States have several options to raise awareness of human rights violations on the global stage. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the United Nations was the initial step for the process of norms pertaining human rights in the international sphere. Several treaties that support human rights States have taken several steps on the global stage to claim their diplomatic support for human rights. There now exist a wide array of international mechanisms dedicated to upholding human rights worldwide, ranging from the establishment of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to the formation of the International Criminal Court. International treaties have promoted physical integrity rights, protection against torture and ill-treatment, protection against gender and racial discrimination, and support for economic, social, and cultural rights. When countries sign these treaties, they, in turn, make diplomatic promises to uphold these rights. However, this has often proved to be a challenge. States often lack political incentives, resources, or a combination of both to fully comply with these treaties. For this reason, local and international human rights organizations have emphasized states’ commitments to these rights as a way to pressure countries to change their repressive behavior. Human rights organizations and the individuals they advocate for continue to grapple with numerous obstacles in their quest for accountability. The largest obstacle in the pursuit for international compliance for human rights has been the lack of accountability for past and present human rights violations. In some cases, this lack of action is due to the continued presence of political leaders and elites that continue to reside in powerful positions that allow them to block measures against impunity. For this reason, victims and human rights organizations have taken their cases to regional and international courts. However, only the most critical cases with extensive evidence make it to these courts for review. These courts have no power over the governments when they are found guilty. Instead, the judgements from these courts serve to support and provide legitimacy to the people seeking justice. States are often pressured to accept the facts and open investigations if found guilty by regional courts. These international mechanisms that have been used to seek and promote human rights have faced criticism. Some critics argue that the courts are biased, particularly the International Criminal Court. This court has primarily focused on cases in the African region. For example, in 2016, Burundi and South Africa withdrew from the Rome Statute, the treaty used to accept and support the legitimacy of the International Criminal Court. Nevertheless, some scholars have argued that there has been an increasing promotion for human rights in the last few decades. Kathryn Sikkink has argued that we have recently experienced a ‘justice cascade’ where it is now more common to see cases against individuals for their participation in human rights violations. #### The Creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Prior to the Universal Declaration of Human rights in 1948, advocacy for different types of human rights existed^[[1]](https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801477706/universal-human-rights-in-theory-and-practice/) in different regions worldwide. However, the creation of this declaration within the United Nations marked the beginning of a unified understanding of human rights on an international scale. Contributors to the drafting process were from the West and Global South.^[[2]](https://www.un.org/en/about-us/udhr/drafters-of-the-declaration) Eleanor Roosevelt, first lady of the U.S. under Franklin D. Roosevelt’s presidency, John Humphrey, a Canadian legal scholar, and René Cassin, a French scholar were some of the authors from the West that played key roles in drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Authors from the Global South were also paramount to the creation of the Declaration, including Charles Malik, a Lebanese academic and diplomat, Hernan Santa Cruz, a Chilean lawyer, and Hansa Mehta, a social activist and writer from India. Despite the diverse participation from different regions of the world, the creation of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights had its own challenges. Debate emerged^[[3]](https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801477706/universal-human-rights-in-theory-and-practice/) over the rights and language that ought to be included. There were also many states that did not receive an opportunity to participate due to their lack of sovereignty at the time. #### International Human Rights Treaties The creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights led^[[4]](https://www.un.org/en/about-us/udhr/foundation-of-international-human-rights-law) a path to the adoption of international treaties that supported human rights. Unlike the Declaration, these treaties required signatures and ratification from the participating states to show their commitment. Treaty signatures are recognition and support of the international law under consideration. However, the ratification process represents an initiative from the state to fully comply with the international law by implementing it in their own state. The ratification process is a higher stage of commitment since, in many cases, it requires approval from the state’s legislature. This meant that states led the decision to declare full support for these rights. The Geneva Conventions were some of the first international commitments that required ratification to support physical integrity rights^[[5]](https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/gci-1949) of the person, including freedom from torture and extrajudicial killings. The Conventions were adopted in 1949 to protect wounded soldiers and innocent civilians during times of war. Since the Geneva Conventions, the number of treaties declaring protections for human rights have increased^[[6]](https://indicators.ohchr.org/) over time. Each adversary supported^[[7]](https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801477706/universal-human-rights-in-theory-and-practice/) its own treaty during the Cold War. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), created in 1966, commits states to respect the right to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and electoral rights, among others. This treaty was supported by the United States. Ratification of this Covenant increased to^[[8]](https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?Treaty=CCPR&Lang=en) 172 as of December 2018. The Soviet Union supported^[[9]](https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801477706/universal-human-rights-in-theory-and-practice/) the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), created in 1966. This Covenant supports the right to food, the right to adequate housing, and the right to water, sanitation, health, and social security. As of 2021, 169 countries have ratified^[[10]](https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?Treaty=CCPR&Lang=en) the ICESCR. There are five additional conventions protecting human rights including^[[11]](https://indicators.ohchr.org/) the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. #### The Promotion of International Human Rights Treaties The support for international treaties on human rights via signature and ratification does not guarantee^[[12]](https://academic.oup.com/jhrp/article/14/1/1/6717595) that states will actively promote these rights. Nevertheless, the creation of international human rights law equips^[[13]](https://academic.oup.com/isq/article/56/1/1/1935082) local activists and organizations with a framework to advocate for victims and pressure their governments to address impunity. Full compliance has remained^[[14]](https://academic.oup.com/jhrp/article/14/1/1/6717595) challenging. Scholars critical of the efficacy of international law argue^[[15]](https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691155364/making-human-rights-a-reality) that without a powerful state exerting pressure on other governments, the potential for international law to create meaningful change in human rights norms is significantly curtailed. International law does not hold an exhaustive list of rights. There continue to be advocates promoting new rights and new language to existing rights. For example, the Human Rights Council, a body in the United Nations that promotes human rights around the world, began^[[16]](https://www.ohchr.org/en/climate-change) to add human rights language in the context of climate change in 2010. The Council argues that climate change ought to be considered a human rights crisis. This advocacy emerged due to an increasing concern about the effects that climate change has had on the livelihoods of people who are displaced due to climate change-related events. Overall, human rights advocates continue to pressure states to support existing rights based on international law and also promote new rights based on new challenges that emerge around the world. Although there is no international enforcement mechanism to implement compliance, the frameworks used in these treaties are used by advocates and human rights organizations to remind states of their commitments. ## Subtopic 2: Factors Leading to Abuse - There are multiple causes for abuse. Much of the literature argues that protests and demonstrations, times of war, and dehumanizing language are some explanations for this. For example, during protests and demonstrations that challenge political leaders' authority, governments may resort to repressi #### Protests and Demonstrations Scholars from multiple disciplines argue^[[17]](https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691155364/making-human-rights-a-reality) that human rights abuses stem from various factors. One of these factors is protests and demonstrations. Protests and demonstrations offer a means to exert pressure^[[18]](https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002700044001006) on the government to address new demands. These protests can call for policy changes, such as wage increases, inflation reduction, and protection of citizens’ rights, among other things. In 2021, the George Floyd death in the U.S. sparked protests^[[19]](https://www.nytimes.com/article/george-floyd-protests-timeline.html) across the country and across the world. Protesters demanded police reform and respect for Black lives. However, governments may not always have the capacity or inclination to implement such changes. Consequently, when demonstrations take place, they can undermine^[[20]](https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290605900101) the legitimacy and support for the government. In cases where governments lack the means and intent to grant protesters’ demands, they may resort^[[21]](https://doi.org/10.2307/2082712) to repressive behavior to stop dissent. For example, protestors in the city of Minneapolis, Minnesota, in the U.S., were injured^[[22]](https://www.nytimes.com/article/george-floyd-protests-timeline.html) with rubber bullets during the George Floyd protests. Repression is also used after protests to deter others from joining the protests and instill fear among those who have already participated. In 2021, Myanmar faced^[[23]](https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/myanmar-history-coup-military-rule-ethnic-conflict-rohingya) demonstrators requesting a return to democratic government after experiencing a military coup. The government responded by using lethal force against the demonstrators. Other scholars have argued^[[24]](https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343396033003003) that repression leads to dissent behavior. According to Walsh and Piazza, the use of torture and extrajudicial killings fuels terrorism because of the loss of the support of the population, particularly groups of the population that could provide intelligence about extremist organizations. However, this relationship between repression and dissent behavior can change when governments use preventive repression.^[[25]](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24809984) Ritter and Conrad argue that when they account for groups who expect repression, there is no systematic trend in the dissent–repression cycle because, in such cases, some groups self-censor. #### Times of War A second contributing factor is the occurrence of war. Oftentimes, human rights violations occur^[[26]](https://doi.org/10.2307/2082712) during an international conflict, a civil war, and armed conflicts. During such periods, there is often less oversight, and norms surrounding the respect for life are often undermined. Additionally, due to a significant focus on eliminating adversaries, government institutions, such as the judiciary, may lack support from other governmental branches and can become politicized. As a result, independent institutions that examine and protect human rights may be absent within the government. During times of war, nongovernmental institutions that may denounce human rights violations face the risk of being targeted by the state. #### Dehumanizing Language A third factor^[[27]](https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691155364/making-human-rights-a-reality) is the use of dehumanizing language. When people are subjected to dehumanizing language, it can foster the perception that the targeted group is unworthy or undeserving of basic rights. For instance, in Rwanda,^[[28]](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26875506) Hutu extremists used dehumanizing language to spread hate against the Tutsi minority. ## Subtopic 3: The Promotion of Human Rights - International treaties aimed at promoting human rights facilitate collaboration between local and global human rights organizations. These organizations often use international law to pressure states to comply with their previous diplomatic commitments related to the protection of human rights. In a #### The Role of International Organizations The establishment of international treaties aimed at promoting human rights has fostered^[[29]](https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801484568/activists-beyond-borders/) transnational collaboration between local human rights organizations and their global counterparts. The main duty of international organizations that support human rights is to promote these rights and condone impunity. There are intergovernmental organizations at the national level, like the United Nations, that promote human rights using international law. The main actors in these platforms are diplomats promoting their country’s policies and perspectives. This can often come with its own limitations (see the Accountability Section). Other international platforms that seek to promote human rights are nongovernmental international organizations like Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and Human Rights First. These organizations provide a framework to support human rights across different parts of the world by criticizing states based on a cluster of violations of human rights international law rather than individual cases. #### The Role of Local Organizations and Civil Society However, it is local organizations and civil society that play a pivotal role in the adoption and advocacy of international human rights norms, serving as vital drivers for change^[[30]](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00694.x) on the global stage. These organizations collect information for individual cases and provide resources to victims to pursue accountability or receive the support via accompaniment. Local organizations encompass both intergovernmental entities, government departments focused on promoting human rights, and nongovernmental organizations, where the pursuit of rights falls outside the political sphere. Nongovernmental local human rights organizations often collaborate^[[31]](https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801484568/activists-beyond-borders/) across borders with other organizations to strengthen the collective voice for human rights. These transnational networks work together to exchange tools, information, and support for human rights advocacy. #### The Boomerang Effect: Pressure from External Actors Nongovernmental and intergovernmental organizations, together with dedicated activists, engage^[[32]](https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801484568/activists-beyond-borders/) in criticizing states for their human rights abuses. Oftentimes, local human rights organizations face numerous obstacles when attempting to persuade states to embrace fair trials, conduct thorough investigations, and execute positive changes in their behavior. For this reason, these organizations often reach out to international organizations and other states. They recognize the influence that external actors may have over a state’s sanctions. The leverage from international actors can manifest in various forms, including influencing international reputation, the implementation of sanctions, or other types of international repercussions. The use of states and organizations to pressure changes in state behavior is a phenomenon often referred to as the boomerang effect.^[[33]](https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801484568/activists-beyond-borders/) ## Subtopic 4: Challenges Faced by Human Rights Advocates - While the number of human rights treaties and ratifications has increased, there remain various challenges. For example, some powerful states, like the United States, have yet to ratify certain important human rights treaties.Another challenge is holding perpetrators accountable for past human right #### A Lack of Accountability One significant challenge has been the slow progress towards holding perpetrators accountable for serious human rights abuses committed in the past. The International Criminal Court is the only international court that investigates and holds trials against individual perpetrators of the most heinous crimes, including war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. However, the ICC only holds jurisdiction in states that have ratified the Rome Statute and crimes committed after 2002. Not all cases are investigated in the International Criminal Court. In Colombia, human rights advocates sought an investigation^[[34]](https://www.icc-cpi.int/colombia) into cases of human rights violations resulting from the prolonged armed violence in the country. In 2004, the ICC initiated a preliminary investigation into some of these cases. Following extensive legal and factual analyses, the ICC concluded in 2021 that the state of Colombia was not inactive, unwilling, or unable to genuinely investigate and prosecute crimes against international law, including war crimes. Nonetheless, advocates in Colombia faced delays in examining these cases due to the ongoing peace process. Cases that reach the International Criminal Court (ICC) have also faced criticism.^[[35]](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/africa/2021-06-18/truly-international-criminal-court) Many African leaders contend that the focus has predominantly been on prosecuting perpetrators in the African region, while accountability for perpetrators in the West remains limited. For instance, human rights organizations and advocacy groups accused the former U.S. President, George W. Bush, of war crimes^[[36]](https://www.ecchr.eu/en/case/criminal-complaint-against-bush/) related to the invasion of Iraq in 2003 and his endorsement of interrogation methods that violated international human rights standards. However, no investigations were conducted following these investigations. Pursuing such investigations at the international level is challenging, particularly because the U.S. has not ratified the Rome Statute, which grants jurisdiction to the International Criminal Court. #### Establishing the Facts: Regional Organizations and Courts Even though there are many mechanisms through which to pursue accountability, cases involving extensive human rights violations rarely receive government support for an accountability process. As a result, victims and local human rights organizations often turn to^[[37]](https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/nyuilp44&div=27&g_sent=1&casa_token=bFDr0Wlnes8AAAAA:3y60oSs3Mps4EoznptXT-kHoYfeeMuEXVPnTygi85rliSbHXmo32HNcPGIdEjXDCCd2t45WYBQ&collection=journals) regional organizations for oversight in such cases. Some of these regional entities have their own courts, which play a critical role in establishing the legitimacy of the facts and the plight of the victims. They exert pressure on governments to pursue a process of accountability. In Europe, the Council of Europe houses both the European Commission of Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights. Similarly, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights is responsible for referring cases to the Inter-American Court on Human Rights, which operates within the Organization of American States. These regional organizations and courts put pressure on states and provide guidance in the face of severe cases of human rights violations. Before a case reaches a regional court, it undergoes examination by a Commission.^[[38]](https://www.corteidh.or.cr/que_es_la_corte.cfm?lang=en#:~:text=It%20is%20an%20autonomous%20legal,it%20can%20order%20provisional%20measures.) The Commission assesses whether there is sufficient evidence to support the claim that regional international laws on human rights were broken. Despite the significant impact these courts have in terms of advancing cases of human rights violations, they lack the direct authority to investigate and prosecute perpetrators. Instead, they issue judgments that formally request action from the accused governments. These judgements pressure governments to address the violations and work towards a resolution. These requests take various forms, including calls for financial reparations, thorough and independent investigations and fair trials, and the establishment of memorials. For example, a significant case reviewed by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights involved the 1982 genocide in Guatemala.^[[39]](https://cja.org/what-we-do/litigation/the-guatemala-genocide-case/) Despite the presence of evidence supporting the claim of genocide and continued pressure from multiple human rights organizations, the Guatemalan government failed to acknowledge the facts and take appropriate measures to investigate and address the severe human rights violations. For this reason, local human rights organizations took cases of genocide to the regional Commission, which accepted and forwarded the cases to the regional court. Upon reaching the court, the Inter-American Court evaluated the evidence and issued judgments to exert pressure on the state to pursue accountability against the perpetrators. ## Sources and further reading - [Right to a Better World — Documentary Series](https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/right-to-a-better-world-documentary-series/) — The Oxford Human Rights Hub, 2020 - [10 Years of the European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights](https://www.ecchr.eu/en/about-us/) — ECCHR, 2018 - [How Eleanor Roosevelt Won The Battle For Human Rights.](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKy7WcqQWtc) — Oxford Law Faculty, 2019 - [NGOs As Engines of Human Rights Protection](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o6QQTiAnOVM) — Amnesty International Human Rights Education, 2017 - [Why is the International Criminal Court under attack?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxfHYjg6MOU) — BBC News, 2018 - [An Introduction to Human Rights Advocacy](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ghUSEHe7Wug) — Human Rights Watch, 2016 - [What Is Wrong with Our Response to Human Rights Violations?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMAWu7jzbGY) — World Economic Forum, 2017 - [What is a Human Rights Violation?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKAncpUhb8A) — Human Rights Watch, 2022 - [UN to investigate Iran human rights violations?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B7zwjz7hH-M) — Deutsche Welle, 2022 - [The role of human rights advocates](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kGPoYEexSG8) — University of Minnesota, 2016 - [Human Rights](https://ourworldindata.org/human-rights) — Herre, B., Arriagada, P. and Roser, M. Our World in Data - [Human rights worldwide - Statistics and Facts](https://www.statista.com/topics/8285/human-rights) — Statista Research Department - [Status of Ratification Interactive Dashboard](https://indicators.ohchr.org/) — The UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights - [The Humanitarian Data Exchange](https://data.humdata.org/) — Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - [The Universal Human Rights Index.](https://uhri.ohchr.org/en/) — The UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights - [Human rights and rule of law index](https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/human_rights_rule_law_index/) — TheGlobalEconomy.com - [Basic Documents in the Inter-American System](https://www.oas.org/en/IACHR/jsForm/?File=/en/iachr/mandate/basic_documents.asp) — Inter-American Commission on Human Rights - [Index of Alerts](https://protectdefenders.eu/raising-awareness/) — ProtectDefenders.eu - [Amnesty International Report 2022/23: The state of the world’s human rights](https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol10/5670/2023/en/) — Amnesty International, 2023 - [World Report 2023](https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023) — Human Rights Watch, 2023 - [Advocating for Human Rights](https://www.scottishhumanrights.com/media/1737/siaa_advocating_human_rights_guide.pdf) — Scottish Human Rights Commission - [Is the Age of Human Rights Over.](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2668287) — Mutua, M. W. Routledge Companion to Literature and Human Rights, 2015 - [Do We Need Human Rights Law?](https://theconversation.com/do-we-need-human-rights-law-92242) — Grewal, K. The Conversation, 2018 - [The Case for Universal Recognition of the Right to a Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment.](https://www.universal-rights.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/2021_URG_R2HE_TIME_REPORT_MM.pdf) — Boyd, D., Knox, J. and Limon, M. Universal Rights Group, 2021 - [COP27: How Young Climate Activists are Changing International Human Rights Law](https://theconversation.com/cop27-how-young-climate-activists-are-changing-international-human-rights-law-193906) — Daly, A. The Conversation, 2022 - [Human Rights Defenders Face Harsh Reprisals for Partnering with UN](https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/09/1141657) — UN News, 2023 - [Legal Principles Shed New Light on Human Rights of Future Generations](https://www.ciel.org/news/legal-principles-shed-new-light-on-human-rights-of-future-generations/) — Center for International Environmental Law, 2023 - [Environmental Destruction in War: A Human Rights Approach](https://www.ejiltalk.org/environmental-destruction-in-war-a-human-rights-approach/) — Ukhorskiy, D. EJIL:Talk!, 2023 - [How the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre Sparked the Birth of International Human Rights Law](https://theconversation.com/how-the-1960-sharpeville-massacre-sparked-the-birth-of-international-human-rights-law-133325) — Wheatley, S. The Conversation, 2020 - [Criminal complaint against George W Bush](https://www.ecchr.eu/en/case/criminal-complaint-against-bush/) — European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights - [Rwanda Genocide: 100 Days of Slaughter](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26875506) — BBC, 2019 - [Rwanda: Global Playbook of Abuse to Silence Critics](https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/10/10/rwanda-global-playbook-abuse-silence-critics) — Human Rights Watch, 2023 - [Country Reports on Human Rights Practices](https://www.state.gov/reports-bureau-of-democracy-human-rights-and-labor/country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/) — US Department of State - [Introduction to Human Rights Advocacy](https://academy.amnesty.org/learn/course/external/view/elearning/314/IntroductiontoHumanRightsAdvocacy) — Amnesty Human Rights Academy - [What is a human rights abuse?](https://core-ombuds.canada.ca/core_ombuds-ocre_ombuds/fact_sheet_6-fiche_descriptive_6.aspx?lang=eng) — Government of Canada - [Human Rights for Open Societies.](https://www.coursera.org/learn/humanrights) — Utrecht University - [Preventing human rights violations](https://www.ohchr.org/en/prevention-and-early-warning/preventing-human-rights-violations) — Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights - [What Are Human Rights Violations?](https://www.humanrightscareers.com/issues/what-are-human-rights-violations/) — Human Rights Careers - [What Is Advocacy?](https://www.humanrightscareers.com/issues/what-is-advocacy/) — Human Rights Careers - [HLS in the Community | Human Rights Advocacy](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ViYixWt5kE) — Harvard Law School, 2018 - [Annual Lecture on Human Rights: Reclaiming the Rule of Law](https://humanrights.stanford.edu/publications/annual-lecture-human-rights-reclaiming-rule-law) — Stanford Center for Human Rights and International Justice, 2019 - [The Rights Pod Podcast](https://humanrights.stanford.edu/rights-pod-podcast) — Stanford Center for Human Rights and International Justice - [Why The Human Rights Movement Needs To Be Reinvented](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nSxXjp6_54g) — Knaus, G. TEDx Talks, 2017 - [Declarations: The Human Rights Podcast](https://declarationspod.com/) — The Centre of Governance and Human Rights, University of Cambridge - [On Human Rights Podcast](https://soundcloud.com/onhumanrights) — The Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law - [Fundamentally Right Podcast](https://fra.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/podcasts) — European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights - [U.S. Immigration Policy and the Violation of Human Rights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KMnrYZPmygE) — Brané, M. TEDx Talks, 2018 ## About the author: Melissa Martinez, University of Mary Washington Melissa Martinez is an assistant professor for the Department of Political Science and International Affairs at the University of Mary Washington. She specializes in Human Rights and Latin American politics. --- # Migrant Smuggling URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/migrant-smuggling Published: 2023-11-21 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Luigi Achilli, European University Institute (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/luigi-achilli-european-university-institute) Category: Society Countries: Greece, Libya, Mexico, Niger, Turkey Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Smugglers are known, especially in Western Europe and North America, as vicious criminals behind enterprises that threaten the security of nation-states and safety of migrants. Several reports tell of the ruthlessness of smugglers, who do not hesitate to abandon people in the desert or leave them on the high seas. Recent studies, however, have criticized popular generalisations and representations connected to the smuggling practice for being supported by little empirical data. ## Summary - Migrant smuggling occurs globally. - Demand for smuggling largely stems from limited opportunities for legal migration. - Approaches to fight smuggling have failed to reduce crime and migrant deaths. ## Subtopic 1: Migrant Smuggling: Brief Overview - Smugglers are known, especially in Western Europe and North America, as vicious criminals behind enterprises that threaten the security of nation-states and safety of migrants. Several reports tell of the ruthlessness of smugglers, who do not hesitate to abandon people in the desert or leave them on The United Nations’ 2000 Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and its accompanying Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants, defines^[[1]](https://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/UNTOC/Publications/TOC%20Convention/TOCebook-e.pdf) smuggling as the facilitation, for financial or other material gain, of irregular entry into a country where the migrant is not a national or resident. This definition was introduced to distinguish migrant smuggling from human trafficking – namely, the act of transporting or coercing people in order to benefit from their work or service, typically in the form of forced labour or sexual exploitation. Smugglers have earned a negative reputation, especially in Western Europe and North America, as being evil geniuses behind criminal trades that endanger the very security of nation-states and human predators waiting to exploit migrants’ need for assistance and their dreams for a better life. Several accounts report the recklessness of smugglers who do not hesitate to abandon human beings in the desert or sabotage their own vessels to force authorities to carry out rescues. In April 2015, for example, an overcrowded fishing boat capsized near the coast of Libya, causing the death of most of the eight hundred people stuck onboard. Survivors claimed^[[2]](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/06/migrants-rescued-mediterranean-smugglers-libya) that smugglers locked most migrants in the hull and middle deck of the three-layered boat, trapping them when the boat sunk. EUROPOL estimated^[[3]](https://www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/ep-ip_report_executive_summary.pdf) that in 2015 alone, criminal networks involved in the facilitation of irregular migration have had an income of between 3 and 6 billion EUR; meanwhile the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims^[[4]](https://www.cronica.com.mx/notas-trafico_ilegal_de_migrantes_en_al_genera_7_mil_mdd_a_la_mafia_onu-1021584-2017.html) that in Central America and along the US-Mexico border that they generate 7 billion USD – a low estimate no doubt, according to UN officials. While successful at mobilizing public opinion and policy makers, the idea of growing, powerful and sophisticated criminal networks of smugglers is seldom supported by empirical data. This popularized portrait of human smuggling most often comes from the experiences and data sources of government or law enforcement entities, or from victims whose experiences are so heinous that they can be easily turned into stereotypical cases. Recent empirical studies, however, are now rebutting^[[5]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716217746908) the argument that smuggling is controlled by highly organized criminal networks and, some, even suggest that smuggling constitutes a grassroots form of support for people fleeing immediate danger and economic hardship. These studies^[[6]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716217746641) have also questioned typical portrayal of smugglers as predators and migrants as victims. Instead they show that the interactions between migrants and smugglers across the world can also involve a complex set of motivations that include friendship, affective, spiritual and even ideological motivations. Reports have also widely documented the risks faced by smuggled migrants. Every year,thousands of migrants die**Source:** International Organization for Migration. [Migrant deaths and disappearances](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/migrant-deaths-and-disappearances). Migration Data Portal, 2022.during the course of  smuggling activities. Along most smuggling routes, migrants perish or are severely injured due to accidents, extreme terrain or weather conditions. Intentional killings by smugglers are also reported,^[[7]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) making this illegal trade a very violent business. The reported deaths — most of which occur along maritime smuggling routes — represent only the tip of the iceberg of the human cost that smuggled migrants ultimately suffer. Many migrant deaths are likely to go unreported^[[8]](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/migrant-deaths-and-disappearances) because they occur at sea or on remote overland routes. It should be noted, however, the dangers faced by smuggled migrants are also a direct consequence of the progressive tightening of border control and increasingly restrictive migration policies along the route. As smugglers are themselves wary of moving on hazardous ground, they seek to limit the chances of apprehension by employinga variety of strategies**Source:** United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. [Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html). 2018.– such as setting off on longer and, therefore, more dangerous journeys, choosing unsafe points of crossing, and leaving migrants on their own during the crossing. ## Subtopic 2: Migrant Smuggling Routes - There are multiple smuggling routes, whose length vary, from the crossing of borders between adjacent states to journeys stretching across several continents. Smuggling routes can also change rapidly. Multiple factors can lead to a rapid increase or decrease in the volume of smuggled migrants across The smuggling of migrants is a global phenomenon that affects^[[9]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) a large number of countries. Routes are multiple and can also involve the crossing of several continents – from internal African routes towards north and south Africa, to Asian and African routes towards Europe, the United States and the Middle East, or to wealthier countries in South-East Asia and the Pacific. It should be noted, however, that migrant smuggling often simply involves movement across the borders of two adjacent countries. For example, after the outbreak of the war in Syria in 2011, large numbers of Syrians used smugglers^[[10]](https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/10/20/our-lives-are-death/syrian-refugee-returns-lebanon-and-jordan) both to go to and return from neighbouring countries – such as, Jordan, Turkey or Lebanon. Some countries can be the final destination for migrants, while others are transit areas where they stop, waiting to move on further. In many cases, there is no clear distinction between transit and destination countries. Libya, for example, has long been a destination country for migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa. However, the fall of the Gadhafi regime in 2011, and the ensuing political violence, turned the country into a crucial transit point to Europe. Smuggling routes can also change rapidly.^[[11]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) Multiple factors can lead to a swift change in the volume of smuggled migrants across a route. These include, but are not limited to: wars, poverty, political turmoil, and the fast-changing scenario of border control. For example, in 2015 (the year Russia & the US entered the conflict in Syria), the European Border and Coast Guard Agency, Frontex, registered^[[12]](https://frontex.europa.eu/media-centre/news/news-release/eu-s-external-borders-in-2022-number-of-irregular-border-crossings-highest-since-2016-YsAZ29#:~:text=In%202022%2C%20Frontex%20had%20about,both%20attempts%20and%20successful%20crossings) record numbers of irregular border crossings to Europe — around 1.2 million people (compared to 330,000 detected irregular border crossings in 2022). These were mostly Syrians, Afghans and other asylum seekers who entered Europe^[[13]](https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/474bb018-b537-11e6-9e3c-01aa75ed71a1) via Turkey and Greece, mostly with the help of smugglers. A large share of these migrants have now made their way to EU Member States via the so-called Eastern Mediterranean route. The escalation of the Syrian conflict, the re-emergence of political instability in the region, and radical changes in transit countries’ border controls substantially increased the number of migrants traveling along this route, as well as the number of smugglers enabling their irregular journeys. While routes change, the locations where migrant smugglers offer their services tend to remain stable^[[14]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) over time. These smuggling hubs can be large capital cities or remote villages where migrants wait for days, weeks, or even months as they attempt to cross borders, earn enough to live on, hire smugglers, secure food and shelter, find protection or decide to stay where they are. Istanbul and Izmir in Turkey, Tripoli in Libya, or Tijuana in Mexico have long been crucial  hubs in the changing landscape of migratory routes. In the long term, however, these transit hubs are also susceptible to change^[[15]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) . Agadez in Niger, for example, has traditionally been a crucial transit point for smuggling flows, where smugglers have arranged transportation services towards North Africa for hundreds of thousands of migrants from West Africa and other regions. However, the closure of land borders following the outbreak of the COVID pandemic in 2020 and heightened surveillance by law enforcement agencies at both the Libyan and Algerian borders, contributed to the decline of Agadez and led to the emergence^[[16]](https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Human-smuggling-and-trafficking-ecosystems-NIGER.pdf) of new transit hubs such as the city of Tahoua in Niger. Tahoua is easily accessible by the local transport system and advantageously located near the Algerian border. ## Subtopic 3: Organizational Structure and Smuggling Methods - There are a number of different techniques that human smugglers use to move migrants across international borders. Generally, air routes are safer but more expensive than land and sea routes. Land crossings, however, remain the most widely travelled smuggling corridors. Either way, journeys are gene Empirical research^[[17]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) undertaken across the world has shown that human smuggling involves very different ways of doing things depending on the origin of the smugglers, the client group, and the smuggling route. Smuggling groups can vary from single-service providers to multi-service networks. #### Smuggling Group Structures: Single Service Providers Single service providers are small groups that run border crossings and often have solid roots in local communities. > **Smuggling groups** are the operative unites that run smuggling operations, from the crossing of national borders between two countries to journeys that involve the crossing of several continents. Professional smugglers are at the core of these groups. The bigger the smuggling group is, the larger is the number of people operating at different phases of the journey. They do not have ties within the migrants’ countries of origin, and the recruitment happens through intermediary groups. These groups generally serve migrants who travel alone, mostly legally, for most of their journey. Migrants would refer to smugglers only to cross a specific leg of their journey. In 2018, thousands of migrants and asylum seekers coming from Mexico and Central America joined “migrant caravans”^[[18]](https://nacla.org/news/2018/11/26/caravan-exodus-migration-movement) to travel independently to Tijuana or other border cities in northern Mexico where smugglers then arranged transportation to the other side of the border. #### Smuggling Group Structures: Multi-service Networks At the other end of the spectrum, larger and wider-ranging networks have offshoots in migrants’ countries of origin. These organizations operate either land, air or sea routes and provide customers with a variety of services that range from border crossings to detention center releases. These types of migrant-smuggling services are often used^[[19]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2006.00382.x) by migrants who are barred from legal entry to transit countries. In such cases, the smuggling of migrants occurs through a pre-organized, multi-stage process. It is worth pointing out, however, that even wide-ranging networks do not have the sturdy hierarchical structure^[[20]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716217746641) that has been observed within military or larger criminal organizations, such as mafia groups. Rather, they are a chain of independently but closely interacting ‘stage coordinators’ who organize the migration process by outsourcing certain smuggling activities to local coordinators – often individuals with solid ties in the local community of transit countries. The latter, in turn, subcontract border crossings to the local service providers. It should be added that both single service providers and multi-service networks often delegate some of the logistics to individuals who participate in smuggling ventures only occasionally.^[[21]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) These are often locals who work as “freelancers” by providing a range of services to ensure that the smugglers can operate undisturbed. These services might include renting out their car or boats, sub-leasing their lands as points of departure or crossing, or selling goods such as life jackets. #### Methods of Migrant Smuggling There are many different techniques^[[22]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) that migrant smugglers employ to move migrants across international borders. Generally air routes are safer, but more expensive than land and sea routes. Land crossings, however, remain the most widely travelled smuggling corridors. Overall, the methods used to smuggle migrants depend on a number of factors, such as border control, migration policies, cost of smuggling services, geography, and the personal relationship between smugglers and migrants. In the Mediterranean, for example, smugglers capitalize^[[23]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) on the presence of aid and border control agencies, counting on the moral and legal obligations to assist migrants in distress at sea. They operate remotely and generally maintain contact by phone with migrants who pilot the boat. On the other hand, concealment and hiding is the most common strategy to smuggle people across the US-Mexico border – for example, border control is circumvented^[[24]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) by moving migrants through desert areas or hiding them in concealed compartments in trucks, private vehicles, and freight trains. #### Structure of and Personnel in Migrant Smuggling Organisations Empirical evidence has also demonstrated^[[25]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1477370817749179?journalCode=euca) that smuggling groups operating across the globe are generally small and independent with roles that are not integrated into rigid hierarchies or bound by long-term agreements. These flexible organizations have, however, a few recurring figures that can be pinpointed. These include the group coordinator, who oversees the smuggling operations and the overall management of the organization; the recruiter, in charge of establishing contact between smugglers and migrants; and the ‘passeur’, responsible for escorting migrants across borders. A number of other figures participate in the business: forgers, enforcers, receivers, and drivers. Finally, these relatively loose and small organizations attract a considerable number of people – often locals – who work as freelancers. They could work for a fee, for example, as lookouts, by using lights to signal the presence of police forces patrolling shores or borders, or as costly taxi-drivers who take migrants to embarkation zones or stash houses. Embarkation zones are where migrants are loaded onto boats heading somewhere, e.g. Bodrum in Turkey (embarkation zone) for boats heading to Lesbos in Greece. Stash houses are where migrants are “stashed” (at times — other times they just hang around in the city or elsewhere), waiting for the next leg of the journey. The wait depends on a number of factors — money sent by the family to pay the smuggler, better weather conditions for making the crossing etc.).The loose structure of human smuggling makes it difficult to draw an accurate financial assessment of the phenomenon. In other words, it is difficult to define how much money flows into the pockets of smugglers as many and different actors benefit from the revenues generated by this business. ## Subtopic 4: Characteristics of Migrants and Smugglers - Smuggled migrants are generally young men in their twenties and early thirties. However, smuggling women and children – either travelling alone or with their own household – is not uncommon. The relationship between smugglers and migrants ranges from altruistic assistance provided by family members Smuggled migrants are generally young men in their twenties and early thirties. However, the smuggling of women and children – either travelling alone or with their own household – is common^[[26]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369183X.2022.2085083) . The gender and age composition of smuggled migrants often depends on many factors, including the reasons they need to move. For example, communities escaping violence and armed conflict often travel in small family groups. > **Smuggled migrants** are generally young adult males, although large numbers of women and minors have been recorded along certain routes. The gender and age composition of smuggled migrant flows is influenced by the circumstances driving their mobility. In case of conflict, insecurity and environmental disasters, families often resort to smugglers. The relationship between smugglers and migrants ranges from altruistic assistance provided by family members or friends to dynamics of exploitation based on the intent of hardened criminals. Although violence and abuse are recurring features of the migrant-smuggler relationship, trust and satisfaction toward the smuggler seems to be^[[27]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369183X.2022.2085083) the rule rather than the exception among migrants and asylum seekers. Ethnographic data collected across origin and destination countries seems to confirm^[[28]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716217746908) a general feeling of satisfaction with smuggling services among migrants. A study^[[29]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716217750562) across the US-Mexico border examined the smuggler-migrant relationship by drawing on more than 1100 surveys with recent deportees in six Mexican cities. While only 45% of deportees reported that they would recommend their facilitator to friends and family members, 75% indicated being satisfied with the services. Moreover, migrants also get involved in providing smuggling services to finance their own journey or accomplish other goals. Some North Korean migrants smuggled to South Korea, for example, have willingly decided to become smugglers themselves to make money and protect their fellow migrants from the same abuses they had to endure during their irregular journey. Regardless, the social bonds, kinship, and friendship between smugglers and migrants do not always protect migrants against exploitation and violence, especially when it comes to collecting money and enforcing contracts. Several testimonies have documented^[[30]](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html) the case of migrants being deceived, abused, or even coerced into human trafficking or forced to carry drug or other illicit goods by their smugglers. Telling of these dangers is the high number of deaths^[[31]](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/migrant-deaths-and-disappearances) among smuggled migrants along two of the most deadliest corridors worldwide, the Mediterranean Sea and the US-Mexico border – respectively around 49% and 6.5% of the total migrant deaths (48500) recorded since 2014. Furthermore, recent empirical research^[[32]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716217746641) suggests that interactions between migrant smuggling and other crimes is sometimes the result of the long term vulnerability and precariousness of migrants’ situations. For example, recentstudies**Source:** Sanchez, G. and Zhang, S. [Rumors, Encounters, Collaborations, and Survival: The Migrant Smuggling–Drug Trafficking Nexus in the US Southwest](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0002716217752331). The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 2018.show how migrants from Mexico and other countries in Latin America carry drugs as temporary strategies to bypass controls along the US–Mexico border. A lack of financial resources often determines a migrant’s decision to exchange transportation of drugs, either for monetary compensation or in lieu of smuggling fees. In other words, while immediate danger or the search for better economic prospects can push migrants to embark on dangerous journeys, without adequate social and financial capital, the cost of the journey can lead migrants to devise new strategies for paying for their own travel, such as engaging in forced labor or moving drugs across borders. ## Subtopic 5: Methods to Prevent Migrant Smuggling - The policy imperatives that have guided efforts to address human smuggling in much of the developed world and beyond remain overwhelmingly focused on implementing an approach that favours strict migration policies and increased support for border surveillance and controls. This approach, however, ha Notwithstanding smugglers’ different modus operandi across major smuggling corridors, the policy imperatives that have guided efforts to address human smuggling in much of the so-called developed world and beyond, remain overwhelmingly focused on implementing an approach that favours strict migration policies and increased support for border surveillance and controls. In Europe, for example, the creation of the border agency, Frontex, in 2004 has been a clear step toward this path. EU members have further tried to tighten border controls and are shifting asylum responsibilities to third countries. Europe’s ongoing collaboration with the Libyan coastguard, to intercept and return scores of migrants and refugees to Tripoli, points precisely in this direction. This approach has been criticized for failing^[[33]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1354066116661227) to reduce the number of facilitators and number of migrant deaths. Studies have shown how the offshore model mentioned above has infringed upon the international and human rights standards set out for the protection of migrants and increases the risks faced by migrants . Even in the case of successfully preventing migrants from leaving transit countries, it has been questioned^[[34]](https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde19/4439/2021/en/) whether this outcome would ultimately benefit them or aggravate their plight. Several human rights groups and international organizations have reported countless abuses and violence against migrants, perpetrated by local authorities in these countries. For example, a 2021 report^[[35]](https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde19/4439/2021/en/) by Amnesty International, highlighted how European states and institutions continue to provide material support and pursue migration policies which enable the Libyan authorities to detect migrants despite severe forms of physical violence against them which have shown no indication of diminishing over the past decade. #### _Author’s Note:_ Alternatives to Current Migrant Smuggling Methods If the intended goal is to suppress smuggling networks and protect vulnerable migrants, security measures might be effective, only if, implemented judiciously and alongside other solutions. Against this background, collaborations with third countries should occur after a detailed human rights impact analysis and investigation of the impact on local political economies where anti-smuggling policies are implemented. Careful considerations must be made to ensure that third country partners’ migration management activities do not impede individuals’ right to seek asylum. It should cease any assistance from developed countries to countries where migrants face the risk of inhumane and degrading treatment; meanwhile return operations of migrants must not be used as a deterrent to irregular migration and human smuggling. Furthermore, collaboration with transit countries should be expanded to increase their capacity to properly carry out refugee status determination and provide international protection, while taking into account age, gender and diversity specific vulnerabilities and protection challenges. Most importantly, the fight against migrant smuggling should focus on the opening of new channels of legal entry and the reinforcement of existing ones for refugees and asylum seekers who make up a large share of smuggled migrants. An effective answer to human smuggling might require countries – especially receiving countries – to concentrate on reducing the “demand” of smuggling services more than curbing “supply.” Smugglers often constitute the only available option for those migrants when fleeing a situation of immediate danger and distress. Accordingly, a decisive step towards a more durable radical solution for this phenomenon demands the opening of new legal entry channels and the reinforcement of existing ones for refugees and asylum seekers, a large share of smuggled migrants. ## Subtopic 6: Migrant Smuggling, Mafia, and Terrorism - There are plausible reasons to assume that mafia and other criminal organizations are increasingly taking control of the smuggling business to profit from such a billion-dollar business. However, this assumption is not supported by empirical data. Mafia, terrorist groups, and other large criminal or It is often assumed that migrant smugglers run their business alongside a number of other illegal trades – most notably drug, human, and weapon trafficking. According to this claim, mafia and other criminal organizations are increasingly taking control of smuggling businesses. If human smuggling is a booming multibillionaire business, there is indeed plausible reason to believe that larger criminal groups could rely on the practice of smuggling for self-financing. This belief has often overestimated the extent and dimension of smuggling organizations. This seems to be supported by recent empirical evidence^[[36]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1057610X.2019.1678884) that shows how large criminal groups in Mexico and the Middle East have not consistently entered into the business of smuggling refugees as a means of financing. When interactions between these organizations and smuggling groups occur, they mostly involve the taxation of smugglers who move people across the areas under their de-facto jurisdiction. For example, disaggregated data^[37] retrieved by U.S. Special Forces from Islamic State (IS) financial records in Iraq and Syria show how this organization relies on rather diversified mechanisms of revenue generation, including the sale of natural resources (notably oil and natural gas). The records also outline a broad range of economic activities that involve a number of external, profit motivated intermediaries (such as truckers, traders, and cash couriers) who were taxed passage fees and custom duties to move goods across the areas under IS’s de-facto jurisdiction. Yet, smuggling of migrants is never mentioned in the budgetary documents. ## Sources and further reading - [What is Migrant Smuggling?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8vlgRa8EQw) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2022 - [Why do migrants risk their life to cross the English Channel?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XVFFi2A-wzs) — BBC, 2021 - [Profiting from misery – how smugglers bring people to Europe](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7OsRz4Ubeg) — Frontex, 2016 - [Introducing Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4IZWnMXHnSU) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2019 - [What is behind migrant smuggling?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpAjFs5fGHo) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018 - [Human Trafficking vs. Smuggling](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A_Oe24le2mY) — Siegel, M. 2022 - [Smuggled to America: Human Cargo](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VZx3EQBE80A) — Sky News, 2018 - [Borderless: Undercover with the People Smugglers](https://www.aljazeera.com/program/people-power/2016/5/12/borderless-undercover-with-the-people-smugglers) — Al Jazeera, 2016 - [In A Libyan Prison, 'Love In Hell'](https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/46092/documentary-in-a-libyan-prison-love-in-hell) — Gastel, A., and Youssef, K. InfoMigrants, 2023 - [The World's Most Dangerous Journey?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mXHhky-xsA) — SBS Dateline, 2016 - [Europe or Die](https://video.vice.com/en_us/video/europe-or-die-storming-the-spanish-fence/560a80dc018ed64734b82654) — Vice News, 2015 - [Migrant crisis: Secret film reveals people smugglers](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-kOU01OmAY) — BBC, 2015 - [Migrant Smuggling in the World: A Global Story](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/sites/g/files/tmzbdl251/files/2017-12/SMuggling_infographic_04.12.2017.png) — Migration Data Portal, 2017 - [Global Organized Crime Index - Human smuggling](https://ocindex.net/rankings/human_smuggling) — Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime - [The smuggler: hero or felon?](https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/36296/MPC_2015_10_PB.pdf) — Achilli, L. Migration Policy Centre, 2015 - [Articles on People Smuggling](https://theconversation.com/us/topics/people-smuggling-6349) — The Conversation - [Trends in human trafficking and smuggling in post-revolution Libya: The Human Conveyor Belt](https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/report-the-human-conveyor-belt-trends-in-human-trafficking-and-smuggling-in-post-revolution-libya/) — Micallef, M. Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 2017 - [Smuggling Migrants at the Border Now a Billion-Dollar Business](https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/25/us/migrant-smuggling-evolution.html) — Jordan, M. The New York Times, 2022 - [‘Migrants are more profitable than drugs’: how the mafia infiltrated Italy’s asylum system](https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/feb/01/migrants-more-profitable-than-drugs-how-mafia-infiltrated-italy-asylum-system) — Nadeau, B. L. The Guardian, 2018 - [Stranded: The impacts of COVID-19 on irregular migration and migrant smuggling](https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/67069/PB_2020_20_MPC.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) — Sanchez, G., and Achilli, L. Migration Policy Centre, 2020 - [Fit for purpose?: The Facilitation Directive and the criminalisation of humanitarian assistance to irregular migrants](https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2018/608838/IPOL_STU(2018)608838_EN.pdf) — Carrera, S. et al. European Parliament, 2018 - [A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and cooperation with third countries](https://www.emncz.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/89.pdf) — European Commission, 2015 - [European Migrant Smuggling Centre 6th Annual Report](https://www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/EMSC%206%20th%20Annual%20Report.pdf) — Europol, 2022 - [Migrant smuggling: why we need a paradigm shift](https://picum.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Migrant-smuggling-why-we-need-a-paradigm-shift.pdf) — Platform for Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants, 2022 - [Smuggled South: An updated overview of mixed migration from the Horn of Africa to southern Africa with specific focus on protection risks, human smuggling and trafficking](https://mixedmigration.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/016_smuggled_south.pdf) — Danish Refugee Council. 2017 - [Critical Insights on Irregular Migration Facilitation: Global Perspectives](https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/62384/MPC_MSO_Book_2019.pdf?sequence=6&isAllowed=y) — Sanchez, G., and Achilli, L. Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, 2019 - [Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants](https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glosom/GLOSOM_2018_web_small.pdf) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018 - [Smuggling of Migrants by Air](https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Migrant-Smuggling/Issue-Papers/Issue_Paper_-_Migrant_Smuggling_by_Air.pdf) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2010 - [Smuggling of Migrants by Sea](https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Migrant-Smuggling/Issue-Papers/Issue_Paper_-_Smuggling_of_Migrants_by_Sea.pdf) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2011 - [Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges](https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Migrant-Smuggling/2018-2019/SOM_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_II_July_2018.pdf) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018 - [Teaching ideas and recommendations](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/635faa1d6c0ae075b5716e40/6538e5f3242f7f0a4b8aa1f9_Migrant-Smuggling.pdf) - [Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants – PowerPoint Presentation](https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unodc.org%2Fdocuments%2Fresearch%2FGlobal_SOM_Study_2018_advance_briefing.pptx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018 - [Teacher's Guide Smuggling of Migrants - Video and Teacher's Guide](https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/secondary/teaching-guide-migrant-smuggling/index.html) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2019 - [Smuggling of Migrants: E-Learning Course](https://emm.iom.int/online-courses/smuggling-migrants) — International Organization for Migration - [Teaching Module Series: Trafficking in Persons & Smuggling of Migrants](https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/en/education/tertiary/trafficking-in-persons-smuggling-of-migrants.html?lf_id=) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime - [Teaching about Refugees - Fact sheets, Teaching sheets, Class debate sheets](https://www.unhcr.org/what-we-do/build-better-futures/education/teaching-about-refugees) — United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - [World Migration Interactive Educators’ Toolkit - Case studies and Interactive scenarios](https://wmr-educatorstoolkit.iom.int/) — International Organization for Migration - [Lesson Plans for “A Life Journey” – Migration and Demography](https://population-europe.eu/resources/teaching-materials/lesson-plans-life-journey) — Population Europe - [Migration and Refugees Lesson Plans](https://pulitzercenter.org/builder/lesson/migration-and-refugees-lesson-plans) — Pulitzer Center Education, 2016 - [Education resources on refugee and asylum issues](https://www.amnesty.org.uk/education-resources-refugee-asylum-immigration) — Amnesty International, 2023 - [E-Learnings Courses about Migration](https://emm.iom.int/online-courses/smuggling-migrants) — International Organization for Migration - [8 educational resources to better understand the refugee crisis](https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/education/2015/10/8-educational-resources-to-better-understand-the-refugee-crisis/) — Amnesty International, 2015 - [Migration – Lesson plans and Activities](https://practice-school.eu/part2/module2/) — PRACTICE - [Aaronova dilema - Mobilná hra, ktorá vám priblíži osudy sýrskych utečencov](https://www.gamifactory.eu/aaronova-dilema) — Gamifactory - [Útek do Peacestanu – Návrh zážitkovej vyučovacej hodiny](https://globalnevzdelavanie.sk/utek-do-peacestanu/) — Človek v ohrození - [Ako učiť o migrácii na geografii – Návrhy vyučovacích hodín a aktivít](https://zachranzemepis.cz/?s=migrace) — Zachraň Zeměpis - [Lidé v pohybu - metodická príručka na tému migrácie a utečencov](https://lidevpohybu.eu/) — NaZemi a Junák - český skaut - [Aj my sme tu doma](https://iom.sk/sk/migracia/vzdelavacie-materialy-o-migracii.html) — - súbor vzdelávacích materiálov o migrácii a integrácii migrantov. IOM Slovensko - [Stretnutím k porozumeniu - metodická príručka zážitkových aktivít](https://globalnevzdelavanie.sk/stretnutim-k-porozumeniu/) — Mareena - [Príbehy utečencov, ktorí dostali na Slovensku šancu a majú tu nový domov](https://www.hrl.sk/sk/pribehy-ludi) — Human Rights League - [Dajme utečencom šancu: E-Learningový kurz](https://www.hrl.sk/sk/info-o-migracii/e-learning) — Human Rights League - [Metodické príručky a aktivity na tému migrácia](https://globalnevzdelavanie.sk/?s=migr%C3%A1cia) — Globálne vzdelávanie - [Mluvme o migraci – výukové materiály na tému migrace](https://www.jsns.cz/lekce/15742-mluvme-o-migraci#o-lekci) — Jeden svět na školách - [Výukové lekce na tému migrace a lidský práva](https://www.clovekvtisni.cz/co-delame/vzdelavaci-program-varianty/vyukove-lekce#nabidky&migrace-5-subjects) — Člověk v tísni - [Metodické materiály do výuky k tématu migrace, uprchlictví a integrace](https://www.migrace.com/cs/regularizace/migrace-na-skolach/pro-ucitele/metodicko-materialy-pro-pedagogy) — Sdružení pro integraci a migraci - [Prečo máš predsudky? Metodický materiál k vzdelávaciemu videu](https://mareena.sk/assets/files/Generation-T/Preco-mame-predsudky-Metodicky-material.pdf) — Mareena - [Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants](https://www.unodc.org/documents/research/Global_SOM_Study_2018_advance_briefing.pptx) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018 - [Migrant Smuggling](https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/migrant-smuggling/migrant-smuggling.html) — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime - [Migrant Smuggling](https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/migration-and-asylum/irregular-migration-and-return/migrant-smuggling_en) — European Commission - [Human trafficking and migrant smuggling](https://www.interpol.int/en/Crimes/Human-trafficking-and-migrant-smuggling) — Interpol - [Smuggling of Migrants](https://www.imf.org/en/Data/Statistics/informal-economy-data/Reports/Eurostat-Smuggling-of-Migrants) — International Monetary Fund - [Smuggling of Migrants](https://www.coe.int/en/web/cdpc/smuggling-of-migrants) — Council of Europe - [What is the difference between trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants?](https://www.unodc.org/lpomex/uploads/documents/Publicaciones/Crimen/UNODC-IB-01-draft4.pdf) — Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons, 2016 - [Smuggling of migrants](https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/smuggling-migrants) — Migration Data Portal, 2021 - [Migrant Smuggling as a ‘Crime’ - The Many Faces of Migrant Smuggling](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=USwW0LI0iXM) — Migration Policy Centre, 2018 - [Why migrant smuggling pays](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5maJgYcSI0) — Koser, K. TEDx Talks, 2013 - [UK's plan to send asylum seekers to Rwanda - Interview with Luigi Achilli.](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bFZl9vUbLfs) — CNN, 2022 - [Analysis of the deadliest human smuggling case in US history](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I8YkPB5QCnA) — ABC News, 2022 - [People Smuggling: The Sky News Tonight Debate](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wN3xQTcBUsM) — Sky News, 2015 ## About the author: Luigi Achilli, European University Institute Senior researcher at the European University Institute in Florence (Italy) and the CMI in Bergen (Norway). He holds a Ph.D. in social anthropology from the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS). He taught at Cambridge, SOAS, and various universities in the Middle East. His work focuses on irregular migration, forced displacement, smuggling networks and transnational crime. --- # Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/disaster-risk-reduction-and-climate-change-adaptation Published: 2023-11-21 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Peter McGowran, Oxford Brookes University (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/peter-mcgowran-oxford-brookes-university) Category: Living Conditions Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) The term 'natural disaster' is misleading, as evidence shows that disasters mainly stem from social, political, economic, and cultural processes rather than purely natural causes. Climate change, driven by the actions of the world’s wealthier minority, escalates the frequency and intensity of hazardous events. Despite the urgent need for Climate Change Mitigation, Disaster Risk Reduction, and Climate Change Adaptation, political and economic interests often take precedence. ## Summary - The main causes of disasters are not natural. - Disaster Risk Reduction helps reduce vulnerability and build resilience. - Climate resilient development is a new approach to balance climate adaptation, mitigation, and disaster risk reduction. - ‍ ## Subtopic 1: Natural disasters are not natural - The term 'natural disaster' is misleading, as evidence shows that disasters mainly stem from social, political, economic, and cultural processes rather than purely natural causes. Climate change, driven by the actions of the world’s wealthier minority, escalates the frequency and intensity of hazard The term ‘natural disaster’ is often used to describe disasters and crises associated with so-called ‘natural hazards’ such as tropical cyclones, heavy rainfall events, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and of course viruses and diseases like COVID-19. However, several decades of disaster research have led many experts to argue that labelling^[[1]](https://www.preventionweb.net/blog/time-say-goodbye-natural-disasters) disasters as ‘natural’ is misleading and problematic. This is because evidence^[[2]](https://www.undrr.org/gar/gar2022-our-world-risk-gar) shows disasters are caused mostly by social, political, economic, and cultural processes, rather than natural ones. Originally a radical idea^[[3]](https://www.nature.com/articles/260566a0) , this understanding is now established across most international policy frameworks. This points to another question: how will disasters be affected by the changing climate we are experiencing as a result of increasing rates of fossil-fuel burning and carbon-sink removal, which have been and continue to be primarily driven by the wealthier minority of the world’s population? Whilst the question is in some ways a complex one, in fact, much of it can be answered by referring back to the consensus outlined above. That is, disasters will continue to be caused^[[4]](https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-021-00332-2) mostly by social processes, even if climate change is also a key risk driver. However, the IPCC have comprehensively argued^[[5]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/) that on current trajectories, climate change impacts in some places will exceed the possibility of adaptation. Nonetheless, the explanations of those future scenarios are likely to conclude that their causes were rooted in decisions made in the present to not work towards rapidly reducing fossil fuel emissions. That is to say, the causes of future climate-related disasters will still be political rather than solely attributable to the non-human physical environment. The increase in intensity and frequency of many hazardous processes due to climate change is already visible, although mostly in specific locations for now. But ultimately, as the trend continues, the interconnected tasks of Climate Change Mitigation, Disaster Risk Reduction, and Climate Change Adaptation will become all the more urgent. To achieve these interconnected tasks, many argue bringing all three under the banner of ‘sustainable development’ is needed. However, the term ‘development’ is itself controversial. It is largely inseparable from political and economic ideologies. Two aspects of the United Nations Development Programme’s basic definitions of ‘development’^[[6]](https://research.un.org/en/docs/dev) and ‘sustainable development’^[[7]](https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/development-agenda-retired/) can be combined for this entry: • Sustainable Development = ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’^[[8]](https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/139811?ln=en#record-files-collapse-header) ; • Development = ‘a multidimensional undertaking to achieve a higher quality of life for all people’. When used in conjunction with climate change and disaster risk reduction, two main terms are circulating to label this overarching goal of integrating sustainable development with climate change and disaster management policy: climate-resilient development^[[9]](https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-023-00089-x) and risk-informed development^[[10]](https://www.undp.org/publications/risk-informed-development) . Whilst each has subtle differences in emphasis, both broadly refer to an approach to development which balances the importance of climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, and disaster risk reduction according to the particular context and issue at hand. This means policies would be harmonised to take all these objectives into consideration. Ultimately, though, these decisions are inherently political. Thus, very often, none of these three goals emerge as priorities. Rather, the political and economic interests of powerful actors often take priority. This tends to mean that attempts to address these problems usually revolve around small technical fixes. Policymakers do not fundamentally address the main issues at hand: the unsustainable nature of the type of development the continued pursuit of mostly economic interests gives rise to. ## Subtopic 2: Disaster Risk Reduction - The Lisbon Earthquake of 1775 challenged a prevailing notion of disasters as "Acts of God," paving the way for a more scientific understanding of disasters as "Acts of Nature." Over time, disaster management evolved, acknowledging the influence of social, political, economic, and cultural factors on #### History of Disaster Management Disaster scholars tend to trace the development of ‘disaster management’ as a policy aim and idea back to the Lisbon Earthquake of 1775. This devastating earthquake also triggered a tsunami and several fires in the city. It occurred during and indeed fed into a time of religious and political transformation in Europe. Notably, the earthquake provoked a shift in the way many perceived disasters. In Europe, the dominant theistic view of disasters as ‘Acts of God’ was suddenly challenged by a secular, scientific view of disasters as ‘Acts of Nature’. These competing framings reflected the philosophical debates of the Enlightenment. They also enlivened the power struggle between Church and State in Europe, especially in Portugal. Historians of disasters argue that the Lisbon earthquake prompted the new secular government of Portugal to adopt policies we now recognise as relating to disaster risk reduction and disaster management (for example, Russell Dynes^[[11]](https://udspace.udel.edu/items/bc62093d-d754-4564-a732-e15ee9ffd4d1) ). This included enforcing building regulations and developing emergency plans. But crucially, it also turned^[[12]](https://www.routledge.com/Natural-Disasters/Alexander/p/book/9781857280944) disaster management into a key responsibility of the (national) government. This earthquake was not an isolated catastrophe, as proved by the outbreak of plague in Marseille, France, and famine in colonial Bengal. Based on these case studies, Bandhopadhay argues^[[13]](https://global.oup.com/academic/product/all-is-well-9780197579190?cc=gb&lang=en&) that the rise of disaster management as a way of thinking underpinned the formation of what we now recognise as ‘nation states’. To him, today's widely adopted government structures and responsibilities are the aftermath of this series of events. In this now recognisable arrangement of disaster management, the state assumes a role of manager and protector of its citizens against the dangers posed by an external ‘Nature’. This partly explains why the term ‘natural disasters’ has traditionally been used to label these types of events. Over the past two centuries, the techniques used to achieve disaster management have developed alongside advances in technology and infrastructure. Historically, this approach to disaster management has depended on perceptions of disasters as external threats to society which, although they cannot be prevented, can be anticipated and managed to an extent that the worst impacts can be mitigated. This approach remained dominant until at least the late 20th century. It was then that critiques began to emerge. These critiques largely revolved around the idea that disasters were not natural. Rather, they were believed to be caused primarily by social, political, and economic processes. Or, more simply, that disasters reflect and reproduce an unsustainable approach to achieving social and economic development. The logic followed that, if different decisions on achieving development were taken, the risk of disaster could be reduced. From here, the term, research topic, and policy agenda ‘Disaster Risk Reduction’ emerged. #### Key ideas and terminology in Disaster Risk Reduction It is now generally agreed amongst disaster scholars that disasters are not natural^[[14]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-019-00232-2) . However, the statement ‘disasters are not natural’ does raise an important question: if disasters are not natural, then what are they?^[[15]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/03091325211003328) The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) proposes^[[16]](https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology) this definition as an answer: _A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts._ This definition is the outcome^[[17]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11069-016-2294-0) of several decades of academic work and research which has argued that disasters involve some kind of interaction between processes which are usually categorised^[[18]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-018-0188-3) as either hazards, vulnerabilities, and capacities (sometimes called ‘resilience’). Let’s consider each of these in turn. Climate Change and Hazards A more in-depth overview of Climate Change is provided by the recent IPCC report on the physical science basis for climate change^[[19]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-i/) . ‘The climate’ is different from ‘the weather’: the changes which we all experience on a daily basis. Climate is rather the ‘average’ of various measurements of the weather over an extended period of time and in relation to a specific area. So, it is often just defined as ‘average weather’. Temperature is of central importance to almost all changes in weather. Because of this, experts use existing and predicted changes in average temperature alongside other variables to build complex understandings of how changes in average temperature might affect the frequency and intensity of certain harmful types of weather events in certain places. Such events include rainfall, snow, wind, and other processes. These analyses are thus linking changes in temperature to expected trends in the average weather in certain places. However, whilst these analyses can show strong correlations^[[20]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-i/) between changes in temperature and weather trends, experts point out^[[21]](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01651-2) that our ability to attribute specific weather events to climate change with very high degrees of certainty remains fairly limited. This means, for example, that it is difficult to say with certainty that a specific storm, heatwave or rainfall event was caused by climate change. However, it is possible to say with varying degrees of certainty that climate change is making some types of weather events in certain places more or less likely, more or less frequent, and more or less intense. From this information, it is then possible to deduce that a given extreme or dangerous weather event was made more likely by climate change. In scholarly work on climate change and disasters, these potentially dangerous weather events are often labelled ‘hazards’. The UNDRR defines^[[22]](https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology) a hazard as: _A process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation._ UNDRR attempts to broadly categorise hazards. To do so, they use environmental, geophysical, biological, hydrometeorological, and technological criteria. A more comprehensive categorisation of hazards has recently been compiled by UNDRR in partnership with the International Science Council in their Hazard definition and classification review^[[23]](https://www.undrr.org/publication/hazard-definition-and-classification-review-technical-report) . A brief look at this report shows some of the complexities in categorising hazards and even determining differences between hazards and vulnerabilities. Each of these issues is linked to two recent ideas about how we should understand hazards: multi-hazards^[[24]](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2013RG000445) , and socionatural^[[25]](https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/component-risk/hazard) hazards. The idea of multi-hazards suggests that no hazard ever occurs alone, but is always part of a longer and wider causal chain of hazardous processes. The idea of socionatural hazards suggests that hazards are not always caused just by non-human, physical processes. In fact, disaster scholars have pointed out^[[26]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309132515627020) that the potential damage a hazard might cause is shaped by social processes. Such processes span fossil fuel-driven climate change, scientific understandings of hazards, political decision-making^[[27]](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212420921000303) about hazards and risks under uncertainty, and the built environment^[[28]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2005.00475.x) . All of these processes stem from human decisions. For example, flood hazards might be made more or less hazardous by the management of river systems. The use (or non-use) of dams, river straightening infrastructure, or dredging will make a difference in that regard. The historical context^[[29]](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3bVGuXrd5mg) of the 2021 floods in the Indus Basin, Pakistan, demonstrates these ideas well. As a result of river mismanagement, new approaches have been taken to flood management in rivers and their surroundings. Indeed, the 'hard' engineering approaches to river management, such as dams, have often been found to break down over time, increasing the risk of large-scale flood events. Instead, river and flood management policy is shifting its attention to nature-based solutions^[[30]](https://www.undrr.org/words-action-nature-based-solutions-disaster-risk-reduction) that recognise flooding not just as a hazard but as a natural river process that brings many benefits, such as irrigation, increased soil fertility, and Another good example of a hazard that is often influenced by social processes is cyclones. Cyclones can be predicted and warnings provided on that basis. India^[[31]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17565529.2018.1442794) and Bangladesh^[[32]](https://www.redcross.org/about-us/news-and-events/news/2020/cyclone-amphan-in-bangladesh-preparedness-paid-off.html) have used this tool effectively to significantly reduce cyclone deaths in recent years. On the other hand, there is also evidence^[[33]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-11/) to suggest that human-driven climate change is making more intense cyclones more frequent. For the purposes of this overview, it is important to also point out that many hazards will not be affected significantly^[[34]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-015-0038-5) by climate change. The most obvious examples are hazards associated with the movement of tectonic plates. These notably include earthquakes and volcanoes. This fact could be taken to mean there is no need to consider climate change as a factor when developing disaster risk reduction policy for earthquakes and volcanoes. However, some contexts demand that climate change is considered in such decisions. For example, when building a dam to reduce reliance on fossil fuels in an area prone to earthquakes, climate change ought to be considered. It is also worth considering that climate change may reduce the frequency of impacts or the extent of hazards in some places. Examples might include extreme cold weather in some areas or the risk of flooding in others. A tool^[[35]](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-d6338d9f-8789-4bc2-b6d7-3691c0e7d138) , co-produced by the UK Met Office and the BBC, illustrates how these variations exist not only internationally, but also within countries - in this case, the UK. Acknowledging these complexities has prompted some disaster scholars to question^[[36]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309132515627020) the importance of categorising hazards as social or natural, or as totally separate from vulnerabilities. Vulnerabilities and the social side of disasters The UNDRR defines^[[37]](https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology) vulnerabilities as: _The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or processes which increase the susceptibility of an individual, a community, assets or systems to the impacts of hazards._ The idea of vulnerability in disasters directs attention to how physical, social, political, economic, and cultural processes put people in harm’s way. Being vulnerable, in that sense, would mean having a higher probability of being harmed by a potential disaster due to these processes. The development of theories of vulnerability is also largely responsible for the shift in thinking about the ‘naturalness’ of disasters. One of the most influential theories was the book At Risk II: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disaster^[[38]](https://www.routledge.com/At-Risk-Natural-Hazards-Peoples-Vulnerability-and-Disasters/Blaikie-Cannon-Davis-Wisner/p/book/9780415252164) , first published in 1994. The most well-known part of the book is the Pressure and Release Model, which tries to illustrate how disasters happen. Its overall argument is that if vulnerability is the ‘root cause’ of disasters, reducing vulnerability should be the main goal of ‘Disaster Risk Reduction’. The 1976 earthquake in Guatemala, studied in At Risk II, and a whole host of other cases, showed a strong correlation between disaster impacts and socioeconomic class.  This research feeds into left-wing, Marxist-inspired conceptual frameworks. It found^[[39]](https://www.routledge.com/The-Vulnerability-of-Cities-Natural-Disasters-and-Social-Resilience/Pelling/p/book/9781853838309) that poorer people are often more exposed to the impacts of hazards and usually less able to deal with the long-term impacts than those of a higher socioeconomic class. All in all, this theory describes reality as follows: the poorer you are, the more vulnerable you are to potential disasters. This theory has reinforced the assumption that poorer and marginalised people are often forced to live in places which are more exposed to the impacts of hazards because they cannot afford to live elsewhere. This might be along a river prone to flooding or on a steep slope prone to landslides. An extreme but clear example of these drivers of vulnerability would be Rohingya refugees living in overcrowded camps^[[40]](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212420919317145) which are exposed to cyclones, floods, and landslides as well as a host of health and sanitation issues. Beyond the role of socially and politically constructed poverty, research^[[41]](https://www.ifrc.org/document/world-disasters-report-2014) has also suggested that people might choose to live in such places on purpose. Indeed, these poor populations may have determined that the benefits of doing so outweigh the potential risk of disaster. They may have economic and cultural advantages in settling in such areas^[[42]](https://www.ifrc.org/sites/default/files/WDR-2014.pdf#page=77) . Scholars of gender and disasters would also point out that the experience of vulnerability is not the same for men, women, and other gender identities. The same issue of different experiences of social vulnerability to natural hazards^[[43]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1540-6237.8402002) can be made for other groups who are marginalised^[[44]](https://www.routledge.com/Social-Vulnerability-to-Disasters/Thomas-Phillips-Lovekamp-Fothergill/p/book/9781466516373) for non-economic reasons. Skin colour, religious belief, age, ability, and other variables can affect their vulnerability. Because of these complexities, most scholars agree^[[45]](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003219453/vulnerability-still-matters-greg-bankoff-dorothea-hilhorst) that although vulnerability is often closely tied to socioeconomic class, it is also always tied to context, culture, and other shifting social relations. Despite its importance to the field, some scholars are critical of the idea of vulnerability^[[46]](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003219453/vulnerability-still-matters-greg-bankoff-dorothea-hilhorst) . Many have argued that a focus on vulnerability is too negative and tends to frame disaster victims as inferior or helpless. For scholar Greg Bankoff, such a framing even reflects a colonial worldview^[[47]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-7717.00159) . As a result, it has been argued that it is very important to think about people’s capacities to deal with the processes that make them vulnerable, and to understand and deal with hazards. Such a shift in perception would mean that exposed populations would no longer be passive victims. Instead, they would actively prepare for and respond to crises. Capacities and resilience The UNDRR defines^[[48]](https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology) capacity as: _The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within an organization, community or society to manage and reduce disaster risks and strengthen resilience._ The development of theories of capacities, as they relate to disasters, emerged to provide a more optimistic view of the ‘social’ aspects of disasters. Some scholars argue^[[49]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0361-3666.2006.00331.x) it is essential to not only focus on how people are put at risk by processes beyond their control, but rather to think about how they might work against these forces to reduce the risks they face. This is important not only because it corrects the view that people vulnerable to the impacts of disasters are helpless or without agency. It also matters because such a focus can inform proactive policy and practices. The end result would then be more ways^[[50]](https://www.preventionweb.net/files/2310_Characteristicsdisasterhighres.pdf) to ‘build’ capacity and resilience and ‘reduce’ vulnerability. Governments, communities, and individuals all hold the capacity to prevent the possibility of disaster. For example, they can create and enforce building regulations to prevent building collapse during earthquakes. They may also work on clearing drains in advance of the monsoon season to reduce flood and landslide risk. However, scholars have consistently pointed out^[[51]](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1464286704000105) that thinking of capacity as the inverse of vulnerability is an oversimplification. In the real world, people usually have the capacity and resilience to deal with disasters. This is the case even though they live in conditions of vulnerability due to processes beyond their control. Gemma Sou’s recent work on the impacts of Hurricane Maria on Puerto Rico is a useful demonstration of this idea - visualised in a graphic novel^[[52]](https://issuu.com/hcrimanchester/docs/sou__gemma_-_final_maria_booklet__p?utm_medium=referral&utm_source=www.hcri.manchester.ac.uk) . Sou reframes resilience^[[53]](https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/geoj.12413) not just as the ability to deal with the impacts of the disaster, but also to resist and deal with other forces, i.e. the neo-colonial attitude of the United States towards Puerto Rico. This nuance is important. It reinforces the idea that people affected by disasters are not inherently ‘vulnerable’ but rather creative, strong, and cooperative. This re-framing of resilience directs attention to the political, economic, and cultural processes that have and continue to marginalise them before, during, and after disastrous events and processes. Overall, it is vital to consider both capacities and vulnerabilities as distinct but interconnected issues^[[54]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309132513518834) which are always dependent on the hazards and contexts in question. This fundamental understanding of disasters is not changed significantly^[[55]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-015-0038-5) by integrating climate change into the conversation. ## Subtopic 3: Climate Change and (Un)Sustainable Development - Our understanding of climate change can be traced back to 19th-century scientists like Tyndall and Arrhenius. In parallel, colonial engagement with the tropical world in the 18th century increased awareness of human activities' impact on the environment, but often imposed European views. The separat Svante Arrhenius is often credited with being the first to show that atmospheric carbon dioxide affects the Earth’s surface temperature in 1896. But the Swedish scientist had built his discovery on existing work. Specifically, work on atmospheric composition and the ‘greenhouse effect’ theory developed by John Tyndall around 1859 provided a strong basis for his research. But even this work was built on top of earlier scientific work. Eventually, our more mainstream and contemporary understanding of climate change became fully developed during the 1960s and 1970s (see the IPCC’s overview of the history of climate science^[[56]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/wg1/historical-overview-of-climate-change-science/) for more). Historians of colonialism trace a basic understanding of climate change back to the 18th century. At that time, colonial engagement with the tropical world involved the environment. This led to a growing awareness of the impact of human activities on the climate or the environment. Historian Richard Grove comprehensively argued^[[57]](https://www.cambridge.org/gb/universitypress/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500/green-imperialism-colonial-expansion-tropical-island-edens-and-origins-environmentalism-16001860?format=PB&isbn=9780521565134) that fears about the environmental impact of colonial development actually underpinned the rise of colonialist conservation movements. Several 'conservation areas', 'national parks' and 'reserved forests' were created across European empires as a result. These conservation movements imposed European perceptions of Nature on these new territories. This was done at the expense of local worldviews, which often did not separate 'people' from 'Nature'. Thus, interventions to remove people from what the Europeans perceived to be natural ecosystems vulnerable to the exploits of ‘humans’ contradicted indigenous beliefs and practices. Many populations were excluded from their natural environment, because of European perceptions. In practice, this led to thousands of people being forcibly displaced from their homes and livelihoods. They suddenly needed to find alternative, often far less desirable ways of living. Critical scholars have argued^[[58]](https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/3985059) that what the colonialists viewed as attempts to conserve ‘nature’ might be better understood as protecting what they perceived to be natural resources. This goes back to the exploitative nature of European empires, rather than what they broadly defined as the activities of ‘Men’ or ‘Humans’. Despite ongoing criticism^[[59]](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/halfearth-or-whole-earth-radical-ideas-for-conservation-and-their-implications/C62CCE8DA34480A048468EE39DF2BD05) , the imagined separation of ‘areas for and of nature’ and ‘areas for and of economic development’ remained. This worldview has persisted through two World Wars, the twentieth century and into the contemporary era. Nowadays, this separation exists in many mainstream environmental policy ideas. Criticisms of this have been voiced at various moments by movements like ‘[Half Earth](https://eowilsonfoundation.org/)’ and ‘[30x30](https://www.hacfornatureandpeople.org/home)’. Those associated with the discipline of ‘[political ecology](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/political-ecology)’ use a critical theory called ‘ the production of Nature^[[60]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1467-8330.1980.tb00647.x) ’ put forward by geographers Neil Smith and Phil O’Keefe to explain the contradictions raised by this separation of Man (or Society) and Nature. In particular, work drawing on this theory demonstrates how human decisions have shaped what we consider "natural" areas. The theory emerged from a Marxist academic tradition and is thus usually applied to capitalist logics of development. The theory of the production of nature argues that capitalist development is supported by a ‘socially constructed’ imagination of Nature. Generally, we think that Nature often occupies a separate realm from that of Society. That is, Nature and Society are considered two very different things. The separate ‘natural realm’ provides the resources for [capitalist] development: natural resources. However, it also poses threats to Society and Development. These threats are seen as external to society: natural hazards and natural disasters. Political ecologists’ critiques focus on the perception of nature as something outside of society. They often argue that it is the material impacts of ‘[capitalist] Development as the exploitation of natural resources’ on the non-human world that are increasingly responsible^[[61]](https://items.ssrc.org/understanding-katrina/theres-no-such-thing-as-a-natural-disaster/) for the dangerous aspects of 'natural' disasters. By saying that, political ecologists imply that many of the problems and hazards we face are not natural, but caused by the way we use nature. This challenges a ‘modernist’ view of development which imagines that economic growth and technological innovation can offset their negative 'externalities'. The cycle of growth and innovation is expected to cancel out negative consequences over time. Humans create conditions that threaten nature, such as the production of harmful waste products or land degradation. However, many government policymakers still subscribe to the modernist idea that these environmental issues, alongside poor labour conditions, socioeconomic inequalities, and crucially, the burning of fossil fuels can be fixed through further economic and technological 'Development'. Challenges to these established development logics are increasingly expressed in terms of ‘The Anthropocene’. This term was popularised by scientist Paul Crutzen to challenge existing development logics. Crutzen argues that the impacts of these so-called ‘externalities’ (side effects) of human [anthropos] activities will be so powerful that they will be visible in the geological record (after the Holocene, Pleistocene, etc). He believes that the human impact on the planet has been so strong that it will leave an important and lasting mark on the Earth. Critics of ideas such as ‘The Anthropocene’ argue that the idea groups ‘humans’ into one singular category and fails to acknowledge that, in fact, it has always been the case that a rich minority of humans and associated organisations have been the ones responsible for, and continue to be responsible for, a majority of global environmental degradation. Let’s now consider this argument in relation to climate change specifically. European countries and the United States have contributed the most to cumulative carbon emissions and thus climate change. Measuring each country's contribution to global CO2 emissions is incredibly complex. Indeed, the methods behind these calculations involve many variables and come with uncertainties. Despite these complexities, Simon Evans of Carbon Brief argues^[[62]](https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-which-countries-are-historically-responsible-for-climate-change/) that European countries have contributed the most to cumulative carbon emissions. Thus, specific countries can be tied to the current trends of climate change. This dates back to the industrial revolution of the 1800s, which introduced a more resource-intensive economy. At the time, 'industrialised powers', mostly related to the 'West', started burning coal and oil. Such actions forcibly led to an intensification of the heating of the Earth's surface. Moreover, European powers removed carbon sinks in other areas of the world during the colonial period. Empires cut down forests and instigated other carbon-negative land-use changes in their colonies and dominions. Simon Evans also shows that the United States has significantly contributed to atmospheric carbon dioxide through forest clearances and its own industrial development. Other fossil fuel-intensive and resource-rich countries have been historically involved. These include Canada, Estonia, Norway, Australia, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf states. Of course, these emissions have enabled significant economic, technological, and social development for the above countries. However, given the globalised nature of the economy that underpinned these emissions and associated development, this development was not evenly spread. Indeed, colonisation devastated many societies, communities and environments the world over. Resources, wealth and people were forcibly extracted from these areas to generate wealth for European powers. Walter Rodney, a critical development scholar from Tanzania, points out^[[63]](https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/products/788-how-europe-underdeveloped-africa) that whilst this process underpinned the development or ‘modernisation’ of European empires, it had the opposite effect in Africa, which became ‘underdeveloped’. Another side effect, however, continues to mark former colonies to this day. In a ‘double whammy’, evidence suggests that these countries are also facing more frequent and severe weather changes due to climate change. This critical historical and geographical^[[64]](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S096262982200052X?via%3Dihub) perspective is vital to understand contemporary climate change policy. These policies, as they are constructed, often reproduce colonial worldviews of Society and Nature that were once spread by colonisers. And they also continue causing^[[65]](https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/products/520-climate-leviathan) large material impacts on these countries' societies and ecosystems. #### Disasters, Climate Change and Development: towards Loss and Damage compensation? A recent report on climate change mitigation ( 2022 IPCC Report on Mitigation of Climate Change^[[66]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/) , pgs. 231-232) shows that wealthier countries have contributed more to the greenhouse gas emissions that are changing the climate. These emissions lead^[[67]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/) to more extreme and frequent weather events that many poorer nations cannot deal with. This is especially the case for former colonies and people who were unable to develop strategies to cope or adapt to them. This situation has sparked^[[68]](https://www.carbonbrief.org/cop27-why-is-addressing-loss-and-damage-crucial-for-climate-justice/) a demand for justice from these nations. They want the richer countries to pay for the losses and damages they have caused by their emissions. This is called the ‘Loss and Damage’ compensation movement. Loss and Damage (L&D) is an idea that refers to the general negative impacts (losses and damages) of climate change on both people and the environment. In relation to the specific agenda and political debate, the term Loss and Damage has increasingly been used to describe^[[69]](https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/adelle-thomas-loss-and-damage) specifically ‘the negative impacts of climate change that occur despite, or in the absence of, mitigation and adaptation’. That is, climate impacts which communities, countries and ecosystems will be unable to deal with, due to constraints on resilience strategies. A Loss and Damage mechanism was established in 2022 under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Its official name is the [Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts](https://unfccc.int/topics/adaptation-and-resilience/workstreams/loss-and-damage/warsaw-international-mechanism). Its idea is fairly straightforward: get rich and polluting countries to help those most affected by climate change. So far, however, the mechanism has received negligible engagement and funding from its expected contributors. Indeed, these wealthier nations raise certain arguments against this mechanism. They point to a philosophical question: should countries that have historically contributed most to global carbon emissions be held to account for emissions released under very different circumstances? The historical context and the specific circumstances at the time were indeed very different. When many of these carbon emissions were released, the scientific and political world did not have our current knowledge of the long-term impacts of these emissions on climate. This argument is supported^[[70]](https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/q-a-should-developed-nations-pay-for-loss-and-damage-from-climate-change/) to an extent by the complexities of determining where historical carbon emissions were released from. Another argument deployed by those who would have to pay for L&D relates to the difficulty^[[71]](https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wcc.380) of attributing specific events and processes of Loss and Damage to Climate Change. Climate change ‘impacts’ are only ever felt in relation to other social, political, economic, and physical processes. They are part of a wider array of variables, including vulnerabilities, capacities, and multi-hazards. Thus, developed countries and corporations argue^[[72]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1758-5899.13113) , it is difficult to truly determine how much should be paid for Loss and Damage, as it is often challenging to know the extent to which climate change was the real cause of specific losses and damages. Proponents of the Loss and Damage movement would argue these counterpoints are mere technicalities. For them, there are still scientific truths about climate change that justify the adoption of L&D mechanisms. First, it is undisputed that climate change is happening, and that it has been, is being, and will continue to be caused by industrialised nations. But secondly, there is evidence that climate change is making extreme weather events and processes more severe and more likely in places where the poorer majority of the world's population live. Bearing all this in mind, four key nuances are useful to keep in mind when considering these debates on Loss and Damage: 1. Disasters related to climate-related hazards will always have political, social, and economic causes beyond the extent and magnitude of the hazard. 2. Climate Change projections suggest that on our current trajectories of both mitigation and adaptation, some weather events and processes will exceed some groups’ abilities to manage them. 3. The difficulty of attributing a numerical figure to the extent of disaster damage caused by climate change alone does not disclose the need for Loss and Damage payments. That being said, calculating the amount to be paid, and by whom, remains riven with political and scientific complexities. 4. These theoretical debates, policy framings, and scientific endeavours are all still very much under development. They are far from settled, interconnected, and changing rapidly. The complexity of climate change attribution, both for determining contributions and the impacts of climate change, points to the need for a more holistic and nuanced understanding of climate change. In essence, to understand the dynamics behind climate change, we need to understand those behind development and disasters. This is why some scholars, who are generally more sympathetic to those demanding funds for loss and damage, suggest taking a more holistic approach to viewing climate justice. Broadly speaking, this involves considering climate change impacts, losses and damages, and ‘disasters’, in terms of ‘development’, sustainable or otherwise. Several terms are circulating to describe this more holistic view. However, the IPCC, as a UN body constituted of thousands of world-renowned scientists, has relied on one phrasing as of late. They call it climate resilient development. ## Subtopic 4: Climate Resilient Development - Climate resilient development aims to balance climate change mitigation, adaptation, and disaster risk reduction. It involves considering trade-offs and complexities in various areas, such as constructing energy-efficient buildings, building renewable energy infrastructures like dams, and aligning t Our understanding of climate change and how society is accelerating it has led to the creation of new policy agendas. Their goals are twofold: slowing, or mitigating climate change, and adapting to its current and future effects. But these goals are often not considered in isolation. Instead, policy frameworks attempt to consider the trade-offs and connections between these goals and disaster risk reduction over the short and long term. This process of consideration is referred to here as climate resilient development^[[73]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/about/frequently-asked-questions/keyfaq6/) . There is no exact science to explain what these trade-offs might look like, nor a ‘correct’ balancing of priorities, so it is useful to consider what climate resilient development means across some different issues and contexts. #### Climate Resilient Urban Development Let’s imagine that a new university building is to be built in earthquake-prone Kathmandu, Nepal. It will be designed to be highly energy-efficient and to reduce emissions in the long run. It will also be designed in such a way that it will remain cool during the hot season. Many of the departments from existing university buildings will be relocated to this bigger building, meaning less energy will be spent on heating these outdated, energy-inefficient buildings. A climate resilient development approach^[[74]](https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-023-00089-x) invites developers to consider the many implications of this construction. In particular, it would consider the interconnected implications of constructing this building for disaster risk reduction and climate change mitigation and adaptation. Beginning with climate change mitigation, developers might consider: • Will the overall reduction of emissions offset the emissions given off by the construction of this new building? • Will the overall reduction of emissions offset the emissions given off by the destruction of the old university buildings once they have been vacated? • How will the waste materials, including the old buildings, be disposed of? Assuming the building is viable on these terms, they then need to also consider whether their ability to achieve mitigation will be affected by adapting the building to future climate change. This would involve asking questions like: • What sort of temperature range does the building need to remain cool within? Is this likely to change because of climate change? • Will climate change affect the flood risk profile of the new building? Whilst these questions may be better asked in a less linear way, climate resilient development, which is inclusive of disaster risk reduction logics, will also need to consider the implications for risks beyond climate change. For example: • Given that Kathmandu sits in an earthquake-prone area, to what level of shaking will the building be designed to withstand? Does this affect the type of building materials available? • How will the cooling mechanisms work alongside the need to ensure buildings are properly ventilated, now seen as a vital design feature following the COVID-19 pandemic? • Will the quarrying required to construct this building be done in a way that does not generate a landslide risk? This is not an exhaustive list of questions but the trade-offs and contradictions raised by each question would need to be worked through by the developers of this building and undoubtedly many other stakeholders. From this example, we might then consider what climate resilient development looks like at the level of a university campus, then a city district, an entire city, and beyond. As the scale of intervention increases, so does the complexity and ultimately the number of people affected by these decisions. A wider intervention also raises the inevitable issue^[[75]](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956247816686905) of decisions creating opportunities for some, and risks and losses for others, across a wide geographical range. For example, who will be mining for the raw materials needed? Will these labourers for construction be sourced from nearby areas, or have to migrate from other areas of the country, or indeed the rest of the world? How much will these workers be paid, and how will they be protected from harm? These considerations show how quickly decisions about climate resilient development become political. This demands^[[76]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17565529.2019.1700774) acknowledgement and a basic understanding that politics cannot be removed from these questions. This goes to show^[[77]](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0264-0) that climate resilient development will not be achieved if policymakers rely on technical, apolitical solutions. Whilst the above example is hypothetical, these are very much live issues, as evidenced by the work of the [Tomorrow’s Cities](https://tomorrowscities.org/) project. This research-based but policy-focused project works across four cities; Nairobi, Istanbul, Quito, and Kathmandu. It builds on the ideas outlined thus far in order to ‘catalyse a transition from crisis management to multi-hazard risk-informed planning and decision-making that strengthens the voice and capacity of the urban poor’. The project involves a wide range of stakeholders. From officials and academics to slum residents and church leaders, these individuals come to discuss the future risks in their neighbourhoods. Tomorrow's Cities also integrates scientific modelling and evidence to demonstrate likely changes in the urban environment under climate change. In theory, such projects allow a more open and interactive approach^[[78]](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103400) to decision-making about how the city should achieve climate resilient development. Whilst technical and scientific knowledge plays a role^[[79]](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103365) here, the process remains highly political. One decision may affect a community positively and another negatively. They may impact a set of stakeholders in more nuanced ways. Thus, talking about and building consensus around potentially controversial and ultimately political decisions^[[80]](https://tomorrowscities.org/sites/default/files/resources/2021-03/Working%20Paper%20005.pdf) is arguably the more difficult but important part of the process. #### Climate Resilient Development and Energy Achieving climate resilient development involves all aspects of society, not just urban planners. This matters, too, when we build renewable energy infrastructures, like dams. Take hydroelectric dams in the Himalayas, for example. They provide clean energy to countries like India, Pakistan, and China. However, [critics](https://sandrp.in/) argue that the emissions reductions from these dams are not worth the high costs and risks involved in building them. Their construction involves many human activities which lead to carbon emissions. Once they're built, they change how rivers work, affecting the plants and animals that live there. Dams also release a gas called methane, which contributes to climate change. It's not just nature that pays a price for dams, but people too. Tragic accidents have happened during dam construction in India^[[81]](https://www.preventionweb.net/news/chamoli-disaster-could-happen-again) , where workers have died^[[82]](https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/three-rail-workers-still-traceless-in-kalimpong/cid/1824754) due to mountain hazards in the Himalayas. Dams come with several risks^[[83]](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-09100-5) : they change ecosystems, release harmful gases, and impact people's lives. They are failing to reach a balance between countering climate change and not causing harm to people and the environment. That's why, even though dams are intended to be good for the environment by providing renewable energy, many don't fully meet the standards^[[84]](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_8) for being resilient to climate change. #### Climate Resilient Development and the global economy A recent research project has also drawn attention to the current failure of global supply chains and industries to achieve climate resilient development. The [Disaster Trade](https://www.disastertrade.org/) project focused on three major global industries; tea, cotton, and bricks, and how they undermine climate resilient development despite claiming to be sustainable. Their findings point first to how the emissions released from the production and transport of these goods are unfairly attributed to the poorer countries of production. Indeed, the consumption of these products takes place almost entirely in richer countries which in many cases were historically the colonisers of the countries where production now takes place. The project also shows how the local impacts of these industries produce disaster risks for those employed in the production process. These industries often worsen hazards for local populations. They exacerbate them in various ways. This can be through processes of environmental degradation. For example, clothing industries may rely on the diversion of water for cotton production, causing localised droughts. Tea plantations can degrade slopes through intensive tea production, and cause new hazards this way. These industries might also affect people’s vulnerabilities and capacities. Taking the landslide example further, the report outlines how people working in tea plantations in Sri Lanka are given no option but to live on slopes destabilised by the tea production process. Their specific conditions of poverty, with limited alternatives for housing and income, and their very low wages, explain this situation. This means their capacity to deal with the impacts of landslides is reduced. These supply chains and the problems associated with them are so firmly entrenched that solutions seem unachievable. They would require complete political transformations to be addressed. Nonetheless, the lens of climate resilient development makes it clear that the current configuration of these supply chains makes the perspective of climate resilient development hard to realise. None^[[85]](https://www.routledge.com/Climate-Change-and-the-Crisis-of-Capitalism-A-Chance-to-Reclaim-Self/Pelling-Manuel-Navarrete-Redclift/p/book/9781138383104) of the three key goals of climate resilient development; mitigation, adaptation, or disaster risk reduction, will be achieved if nothing changes. #### Climate Resilient Development in Global Policy Frameworks Two well-known international policy frameworks are broadly framed around issues relating to climate resilient development. These are the UNFCCC’s Paris Agreement^[[86]](https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement) 2015 and the 2015-2030 UN’s Sustainable Development Goals^[[87]](https://sdgs.un.org/goals) (SDGs). These two frameworks form part of what is often known as the post-2015 agenda. The other two lesser-known components of this agenda are the UNDRR’s Sendai Framework for DRR^[[88]](https://www.undrr.org/implementing-sendai-framework/what-sendai-framework) (2015-2030) and [UN HABITAT’s New Urban Agenda](https://habitat3.org/the-new-urban-agenda/). During the negotiation process for these various frameworks, there was widespread recognition of the need to integrate policies relating to climate change, development, and disasters. This recognition was based on the clear evidence^[[89]](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/managing-the-risks-of-extreme-events-and-disasters-to-advance-climate-change-adaptation/) that no one of these issues can be tackled in isolation. Despite this, scholars who attended these preliminary meetings reported opposition to this holistic approach. Their reports argue national governments and industry deliberately worked to ensure the frameworks remained within their respective siloes. For example, Mark Pelling and Lucy Pearson reported^[[90]](https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S2345737615710013) that during the Sendai framework negotiations, the United States pushed back against aligning disaster risk reduction too closely to climate change adaptation and mitigation. This was because they were worried about a legally binding, explicit linkage between disaster impacts and climate change. The concern was that this might provide a legal basis for poorer, so-called ‘developing countries' to claim ‘loss and damage’^[[91]](https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2026) compensation against them. Indeed, these countries are more exposed to the impacts of climate change, despite not emitting anywhere near as much as richer developing countries like the US. In addition to this, Ilan Kelman argues^[[92]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/S13753-015-0046-5) that experts in each particular discipline of climate change, development, and disaster risk reduction often acted, directly and indirectly, to maintain divisions. Their interest in doing so was likely to secure their continuous involvement and funding streams in each particular ‘silo’. Despite this ongoing siloisation, there is a cross-silo critical consensus that disasters^[[93]](https://www.routledge.com/Disaster-and-Development/Collins/p/book/9780415426688) and climate change^[[94]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17565529.2020.1851640) are outcomes of unsustainable development. In turn, there is a consensus that moving towards climate resilient development will require^[[95]](https://www.undrr.org/publication/policy-brief-towards-risk-informed-implementation-2030-agenda-sustainable-development) making development risk and climate-informed. This means that climate change policy should be considered^[[96]](https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/DPM-02-2017-0043/full/html) within an overarching approach to disaster risk reduction and sustainable development. Despite this, it is undoubtedly climate change in isolation which receives the most funding and media attention. It has been argued that this is because, of the three issues, climate change is the easiest to isolate as a standalone issue. It may also be the easiest issue to frame as^[[97]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17565529.2019.1624495) something which can be managed through technical fixes that do not demand political transformation. This also reflects why, despite shifts in international policy frameworks like the Sendai Framework, national governments tend to still perceive^[[98]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-015-0040-y) disasters as external threats, primarily associated with hazards. Framing them as external implies that disasters can be prevented through technical solutions. It also entails that our current model of development is not the problem to solve here. It is therefore the easiest approach for policymakers to undertake. These solutions rely on technological innovation and the concentration of power within centralised state agencies that coordinate emergency response efforts in a command-and-control style^[[99]](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212420918312548) . The latter was particularly evident in most countries' responses to the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g. India^[[100]](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212420923002777?via%3Dihub) ). Some contexts ultimately require engaging with and un-doing firmly entrenched political, economic and social development processes. This approach is to the detriment of addressing such context-specific vulnerability. At almost every point where decisions can be made to transform these development processes, though, there is usually resistance^[[101]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/disa.12107) against change. This is primarily because, as critical scholars in the field of political ecology^[[102]](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2003.00364.x) point out, at each level of decision-making, there are groups who benefit^[[103]](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203235096/liberation-ecologies-richard-peet-michael-watts) from existing approaches to unsustainable ‘development’. Besides the outright protection of private interests^[[104]](https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1475-5661.00033) , some scholars point to path dependency^[[105]](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095937801730924X?via%3Dihub) . Indeed, some of the institutional and cultural norms which guide official decision-making often narrow^[[106]](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2005.00475.x) policymakers' perception of the range of choices available when it comes to addressing complex development challenges. Because of these complex political relationships^[[107]](https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wcc.549) , there is a general trend^[[108]](https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09102-220238) of resisting transformative solutions to structural problems and thus disaster risk creation continues apace^[[109]](https://www.undrr.org/gar/gar2022-our-world-risk-gar) . As of 2023, there is little evidence of the emergence of any widespread political transformation in response to these structural failures to achieve sustainable development. Nonetheless, there is some evidence that disasters, when framed in certain terms, can be generative of positive political change^[[110]](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11069-008-9319-2) . As a result, scholars are interested in new ways to frame disasters^[[111]](https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132509105004) , in a  more political manner. They view this as an opportunity to contribute to climate resilient development through the idea of climate change adaptation as societal transformation^[[112]](https://www.routledge.com/Adaptation-to-Climate-Change-From-Resilience-to-Transformation/Pelling/p/book/9780415477512) . It is also important to note, though, that societal transformation may not always lead^[[113]](https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072317) to more just and equitable outcomes for all. It might lead to climate change maladaptation^[[114]](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.09.014) in some instances. Efforts to adapt to climate change would then need to be thought through and implemented in such a way that no community is left behind. If they are poorly implemented, a whole range of people may be less able to cope with the impacts of climate change than before. ## Sources and further reading - [Climate Change attribution : calculating the role of climate change in natural disasters](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DT74khAyvqQ) — Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, 2022 - [UN climate report : Scientists release “ survival guide ” to avert climate disaster](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MvwnDV2tjBs) — BBC News, 2023 - [Comprehensive Disaster and Climate Risk Management](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0y_BJ0ek1zs) — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2022 - [UNESCO’s Contribution to Disaster Risk Reduction](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pE6c_oNuQmU) — UNESCO, 2020 - [A Decade of Progress on Disaster Risk Management](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5AtqvnQSZgA) — Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery, 2019 - [What is Climate Adaptation?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tn0IYD3D31U) — The Nature Conservancy, 2022 - [Understanding Disaster Risk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O-SWl3J1aQc) — Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery, 2016 - [10 things you should know about disaster risk reduction](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y16aMLeh91Q) — Humanitarian Practice Network, 2015 - [The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9m6mb-blYM) — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2016 - [Adapting to climate change: Five countries set an example](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oshaiU7oHOo) — Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2015 - [Adaptation and Mitigation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fmBDZKOdbkY) — PBS Climate Wisconsin Education, 2020 - [United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction - What we do](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ELfN_fXpQk) — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2017 - [Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation & Vulnerability](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SDRxfuEvqGg) — Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022 - [Natural disasters - statistics & facts](https://www.statista.com/topics/2155/natural-disasters/#topicOverview) — Statista - [24 Types of Natural Disaster](https://outforia.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Graphic-Natural-Disaster.webp) — Outforia, 2023 - [Timetable for Climate Resilient Development](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/figures/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_18_001.png) — Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022 - [Natural Disasters](https://ourworldindata.org/natural-disasters) — Our World in Data - [2022 Disasters in Numbers](https://cred.be/sites/default/files/2022_EMDAT_report.pdf) — Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, 2023 - [The International Disaster Database](https://www.emdat.be/) — Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters - [Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management](https://www.adb.org/what-we-do/topics/climate-change) — Asian Development Bank - [PreventionWeb](https://www.preventionweb.net/) — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction - [Climate change adaptation through land use planning and disaster management: Local government perspectives from Queensland](https://prres.net/papers/Bajracharya_Childs_Hastings_Climate_change_disaster_management_and_land_use_planning.pdf) — Bajracharya, B., Childs, I. and Hastings, P. Pacific Rim Real Estate Society Conference, 2011 - [Revealed: how climate breakdown is supercharging toll of extreme weather](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/04/climate-breakdown-supercharging-extreme-weather) — Carrington, D. The Guardian, 2022 - [The country trailblazing the fight against disasters](https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220719-how-bangladesh-system-fights-cyclones-climate-disasters) — Davison, C. BBC, 2022 - [Why disasters are getting more severe but killing fewer people](https://www.vox.com/23150467/natural-disaster-climate-change-early-warning-hurricane-wildfire) — Irfan, U. Vox, 2022 - [World Disasters Report 2022](https://www.ifrc.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/2022_IFRC-WDR_EN.0.pdf.pdf) — International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2022 - [Climate /change and Disaster Risk Reduction](https://eird.org/publicaciones/Climate-Change-DRR.pdf) — International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, 2008 - [Disaster Risk Reduction And Climate Change](https://www.undrr.org/media/73374/download) — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2021 - [Climate Change, Disasters and Their Mitigation](https://www.un.org/en/un-chronicle/climate-change-disasters-and-their-mitigation) — Taalas, P. United Nations, 2022 - [Climate change and disaster management](https://www.preventionweb.net/publication/climate-change-and-disaster-management-0) — World Bank, 2017 - [Case Studies: Disaster Risk Management and Climate Change Adaptation](https://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/acfin_2015_-_synthesis_document_on_drr-cca.pdf) — Action Against Hunger, 2015 - [Acting On Climate Change and Disaster Risk for The Pacific](https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/EAP/Pacific%20Islands/climate-change-pacific.pdf) — The World Bank, 2013 - [Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction.](https://www.undrr.org/gar/gar2022-our-world-risk-gar) — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2022 - [Climate action and disaster risk reduction](https://www.undrr.org/climate-action-and-disaster-risk-reduction) — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction - [Free Online Course on Nature-based Solutions for Disaster and Climate Resilience](https://pedrr.org/mooc) — United Nations Environment Programme, 2021 - [Disaster Risk Reduction](https://www.unesco.org/en/disaster-risk-reduction) — Unesco - [Disaster risk reduction & disaster risk management](https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/key-concepts/disaster-risk-reduction-disaster-risk-management) — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction - [Natural hazards and disaster risk reduction](https://public.wmo.int/en/our-mandate/focus-areas/natural-hazards-and-disaster-risk-reduction) — World Meteorological Organization - [Adapting‌ ‌to‌ ‌Climate‌ ‌Change‌](https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-solutions/adapting-climate-change) — Center for Science Education - [Adaptation to climate change](https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/adaptation-climate-change_en) — European Commission - [Adaptation and resilience](https://unfccc.int/topics/adaptation-and-resilience/the-big-picture/introduction#:~:text=Adaptation%20refers%20to%20adjustments%20in,opportunities%20associated%20with%20climate%20change.) — UN Climate Change - [Climate Adaptation](https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/climate-adaptation) — United Nations - [Climate Change Is Happening. Here's How We Adapt](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fw01_q0cxM8) — Bows-Larkin, A. TED, 2015 - [From disaster response to disaster prevention](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cWYcXhMhJF4) — Kyte, R. TEDx Talks, 2012 - [We know how to save lives in disasters - why don't we?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmanP8WDNwQ) — Tuneberg, S. TEDx Talks, 2019 - [Resilience: The Global Adaptation Podcast](https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLZ4sOGXTWw8EpCBRpBMQ_yKML6iF3-YdN) — United Nations Environment Programme, 2021 - [Happening Right Now: More Extreme Disaster Events](https://www.podbean.com/media/share/pb-bmttg-12b31e2?utm_campaign=w_share_ep&utm_medium=dlink&utm_source=w_share) — Getting Through It, 2022 - [Space Technologies for Natural Disaster Management](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pc3xYJSNOYQ) — O'Sullivan, S. TEDx Talks, 2016 - [Preventing natural disaster from becoming humanitarian ones](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GNAYkuFBl2o) — Princess Margriet. TEDx Talks, 2015 - [Disasters Deconstructed Podcast](https://disastersdecon.podbean.com/) ## About the author: Peter McGowran, Oxford Brookes University Peter McGowran is Lecturer in Development Geography at Oxford Brookes University. He teaches courses on disasters, development and human geography. His research and academic activities focus on disaster risk, hazards, political theory, post-structural theory, human-environment relations and related policies. He holds a PhD in Geography from King's College London, where his dissertation focused on the causes and impacts of landslides in the Indian Eastern Himalayas. The author also holds a Bachelor's degree in Human Geography and a Master's degree in Disaster Management and Sustainable Development from Northumbria University. --- # The Role of International Organisations in Peace and Conflict URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/topics/the-role-of-international-organisations-in-peace-and-conflict Published: 2023-11-21 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/authors/francis-jegede-university-of-derby) Category: International Relations Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Peacekeeping and peacebuilding are complementary approaches for promoting peace, with peacekeeping focused on short-term stabilisation and peacebuilding on the underlying causes of conflict. However, such efforts can be challenging in practice due to differing priorities of actors and limited resources. Cultural sensitivity is also key for peacekeepers to build local trust and acceptance. While peacekeeping missions have succeeded in places like Sierra Leone, failures like Rwanda demonstrate the complexities of conflict intervention. ## Summary - Peacekeeping maintains short-term peace; peacebuilding creates long-term peace. - The UN plays a major role in resolving global conflicts through its institutions. - Dialogue and mediation are essential for resolving conflicts. ## Subtopic 1: Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding - Peacekeeping and peacebuilding are complementary approaches for promoting peace, with peacekeeping focused on short-term stabilisation and peacebuilding on the underlying causes of conflict. However, such efforts can be challenging in practice due to differing priorities of actors and limited resour #### Definitions of peacekeeping and peacebuilding The main activities aimed at promoting peace and stability, on the one hand, and maintaining it, on the other, are known as peacekeeping and peacebuilding. While both terms are often used interchangeably, they refer to distinct but complementary approaches to achieving these goals. Peacekeeping, in practical terms, refers to the deployment of international military or civilian personnel to areas of conflict. The mission of this staff is to monitor and maintain peace. United Nations Peacekeeping forces are typically deployed to monitor ceasefires, protect civilians, and support peace agreements. The primary goal of peacekeeping is to prevent the outbreak of violence and protect civilians in conflict areas. To do so, UN peacekeepers conduct patrols and checkpoints, and support missions to local law enforcement agencies. They also run other activities, such as the construction or reconstruction of security institutions. UN peacekeepers train and build up local police forces, ensuring they respect human rights and use adequate crowd control and conflict resolution methods. Peacekeepers assist in reforming judicial systems. They train judges and lawyers in fair legal processes that uphold the rule of law. They facilitate disarmament and help former fighters transition to civilian life by offering training and psychological help. UN forces also bolster border security and customs management to prevent illegal weapons flows. The goal of peacebuilding is to address the root causes of conflict and build the foundations for sustainable peace. This takes a long-term commitment from the international community. However, peacebuilding efforts often require more actors than the mere ‘international community’. Government officials, civil society organisations, and community leaders must also be involved as local stakeholders. #### Challenges of integrating peacekeeping and peacebuilding To find the conditions for peace, the UN and NGOs often work alongside local actors. However, it can be challenging to get many groups and stakeholders to work together. While they all aim for lasting peace, actors involved in peacebuilding may have different priorities. NGOs tend to focus on alleviating human suffering. The UN seeks to bring stability to the country's institutions and society. Local actors may want to re-establish strong political power and assert their sovereignty. Also, insufficient funding and resources can make peacekeeping and peacebuilding more challenging. Waging war requires huge amounts of resources, but establishing peace is also extremely costly. Peace organisations and local actors often have limited funds for their international work. This may make it challenging to implement comprehensive peacebuilding initiatives. Limited resources may make it difficult to keep the peace in the short term as well. Lack of funding for disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration programs can contribute to ongoing conflicts. Likewise, insufficient funding could make it hard to reorganise security forces. This may affect the ability of police and military forces to maintain law and order. All in all, peacekeeping programs with inadequate funds can cause the resurgence of conflict. Another potential challenge is the power imbalance between international organisations and local actors. International organisations and NGOs tend to have more funding and influence in the process. This can lead to unbalanced outcomes that do not sufficiently involve locals who know the community at a deeper level. Indeed, local actors often have the best understanding of the context. They are also more likely to be accepted by the local population. Even within local communities, there are often power imbalances between different factions. Some voices may be marginalised or excluded from peace processes. Unequal power dynamics can hinder the ability of the peacebuilding process to be truly inclusive. This can lead to a lack of legitimacy for the peacebuilding outcome. It can also lead to a general lack of trust and suspicion on the part of local communities towards international actors. Because peacebuilding depends so much on effective communication, cultural differences can also make it challenging. Misunderstandings and communication barriers can occur between locals and peacekeepers due to language, communication, and cultural differences. When peacekeeping actors operate in a multicultural environment, clear and open communication becomes crucial. In such situations, interpreters have an important role in bridging language gaps. Cultural sensitivity is also often a requirement in effective communication. In certain communities, peacekeepers may need to use indirect or subtle communication instead of assertive styles. Peacekeepers can build trust and rapport with the local people by adjusting how they communicate to fit different cultures. Building and gaining trust between local communities and peacekeeping actors can take considerable time and effort. Equally challenging is establishing effective peacekeeping coordination mechanisms and structures that are acceptable to all stakeholders. While peacekeeping and peacebuilding are distinct approaches, they are also complementary. Peacekeeping is often the first step in promoting peace and stability in areas of conflict. Meanwhile, peacebuilding is a long-term process. Its goal is to address the root causes of conflict and create lasting peace. The UN mission in Sierra Leone, called UNAMSIL , began in 1999 to help stop the civil war. Many commentators called it a successful peacekeeping effort. The mission helped stop the fighting, create conditions for peace, and organise free elections. It helped restore overall stability in Sierra Leone. > The UNAMIR’s mandate meant the peacekeeping force could not intervene militarily. Some UN staff based in Rwanda were killed at the start of the genocide, with no possibility to retaliate, making it difficult for peacekeeping force to operate. This resulted in the withdrawal of peacekeepers, leaving the population exposed and vulnerable to more mass killings. On the other side of the spectrum, one example of an unsuccessful peacekeeping operation is the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda^[[1]](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/rwanda/2000-05-01/shame-rationalizing-western-apathy-rwanda) (UNAMIR) during the Rwandan genocide in 1994. The mission was allegedly not prepared well enough to handle the increasing violence. ## Subtopic 2: The UN’s Promotion of Global Peace and Security - The United Nations, formed in 1945, plays a major role in global conflict resolution through institutions like the Security Council and the Peacekeeping Force. However, the UN faces constraints due to its intergovernmental nature, budget fluctuations, and internal shortcomings of interventions. Whil #### The UN's Founding Purpose The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945 with the primary aim of promoting international peace and security. Since then, it has played a critical role in resolving conflicts and preventing the outbreak of violence across the globe. > The primary purpose of the UN is to provide a global institutional structure through which states can settle conflicts without relying on the use of force. The UN is the closest thing to what may be considered a ‘world government’ to have ever existed. But the UN is not a ‘world government’. Rather, it is an international and multilateral organisation made up of independent sovereign states. The UN has no power to impose its will on the territories of states except with the consent of those states' governments. Although the UN plays an important part in the world order, it is bound by the decisions of states. In fact, the UN's actions and decisions are based only on agreements between its member states. Reaching such agreements can be difficult because members have diverse interests and powers within the UN. This, in turn, limits the UN's ability to act in certain controversial situations. > The UN operates within the framework of states’ unwillingness to surrender their sovereignty. Hence, The UN has had a mixed record - in some ways providing remarkable global-level management and in other ways appearing helpless against the sovereignty of its own member states. Critics argue that the United Nations falls short in its response to human rights violations and global humanitarian crises, especially when UN member states themselves are accused of such violations. A pertinent example is Russia's alleged human rights violations and potential war crimes in its conflict with Ukraine. Similarly, China's human rights record has faced scrutiny and criticism. Other countries, including the United States, have faced similar criticism. Furthermore, the UN often encounters obstacles in fulfilling its mandates and addressing global challenges due to financial constraints. Contributions from member states to the UN's budget, as well as voluntary funding for specific programs, can fluctuate over time. The temporary withdrawal of the USA from UNESCO to support Israel between 2017 and 2023 is a tangible example^[[2]](https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/06/30/unesco-votes-to-readmit-the-united-states_6040397_4.html#) of such instability. This variability frequently impairs the UN's capacity to tackle pressing global issues such as poverty eradication, climate change, and sustainable development, among others. #### UN Interventions and the UN Peacekeeping Force The UN promotes peace and security through various mechanisms, like the UN Peacekeeping Force. The main purpose of the UN Peacekeeping Force is to prevent the outbreak of violence and protect civilians in areas of conflict. It is composed of military and civilian personnel from UN member states who work on the ground to establish peace. UN peacekeepers have been deployed in many conflict zones around the world for this very reason. > As of 2023, there are 12 UN peacekeeping operations around the world. These are based in Africa (Western Sahara, Mali, Sudan and South Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo), the Middle East (Golan Heights, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Israel and Palestine), Kosovo and Haiti. The [United Nations Protection Force](https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/past/unprof_p.htm) (UNPROFOR) intervened during the Bosnian War (1992-1995) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It helped with the creation of safe areas for civilians and safe humanitarian aid. Similarly, the [United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus](https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unficyp) (UNFICYP) deployed since 1964, has maintained peace and stability on the island. This has helped prevent violence and preserve peace between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the [UN MONUSCO](https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/monusco) mission has also been well received. It was recognized for its role in saving lives, reducing violence, and protecting civilians. The UNMISS mission to South Sudan has also been considered a success for the UN Peacekeeping Force. Despite these successes, the UN peacekeeping force has notable weaknesses and shortcomings. A major problem with UN peacekeeping is the alleged violation of human rights^[[3]](https://academic.oup.com/ia/article/93/2/365/2982811) by its personnel. This has occasionally damaged the reputation of the UN. Reports of rape, exploitation and abuse by UN peacekeepers seriously undermine confidence in peacekeeping operations. The UN and its member states are aware of these internal problems and have expressed a willingness to address them. UN peacekeeping missions can have limited, vague or unclear mandates, which is another issue. This can make it more difficult for the Force to respond well to conflicts that keep changing. It can even put civilians and peacekeepers at risk. Limited resources are another problem often faced by UN peacekeepers. While UN peacekeepers are deployed to keep the peace, they have limited enforcement authority. Indeed, peacekeepers must respect a principle: the non-use of force except in self-defence or defence of the mandate. This means that force is to be used only as a last resort. It can be a problem if the warring factions or government forces don't cooperate with peacekeepers. This has been particularly problematic in instances where local actors have been hostile to peacekeepers. Moreover, as the UN does not have its own standing army, all troops for UN peacekeeping missions are provided by member states. Deploying peacekeepers from different backgrounds, with different languages, cultures, religions and work habits, can thus hamper communication and pose logistical challenges for UN operations. This is particularly true in the training and coordination of peacekeepers working together in unfamiliar territories. #### UN Institutions and International Peace The UN Security Council One way the UN promotes peace is through the deployment of UN peacekeepers. However, the international community also relies on the UN Security Council. The UN Security Council (UNSC) is a UN body responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It has the authority to act against threats to international peace and security. Although it rarely decides to use force, the Security Council has the power to authorise its use to protect peace and security. The UNSC can decide on a range of measures to promote global peace and security. It can impose sanctions on countries, give approval for the use of force, and create peacekeeping missions. However, these decisions depend on the full agreement of its five permanent members. The UN Security Council is made up of 15 UN member states, with five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States) and ten non-permanent members. The five permanent members have a special veto power that can effectively block Council decisions despite majority agreement. As the name suggests, these members are always in place: they are members of the Council by right “based on their importance in the aftermath of World War II” . These countries have held this special status since then. The Security Council has ten non-permanent members. These countries are elected by the UN General Assembly and serve for two years at a time. The process of selection depends on countries’ regional groupings. The seats are distributed as follows: • African and Asian countries combined – 5 seats. • Eastern European countries – 1 seat. • Latin American and Caribbean countries - 2 seats. • Western European and Other countries - 2 seats. The regional groups nominate candidates for seats, and the General Assembly votes to elect them. Some believe that the configuration of the UN Security Council does not match today's world. Many now view this global power structure as an outdated World War II model, which does not include enough developing nations. Hence the growing call for reform^[[4]](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/abs/proposals-for-un-security-council-reform/2D26E684DCC727D9D06480E652FB3327) . The UN General Assembly The UN General Assembly is another important UN mechanism for international peace and security. The General Assembly is composed of all member states of the UN. Its primary responsibility is to foster international cooperation to address global challenges. The General Assembly adopts resolutions through a majority vote of member states. However, these resolutions are non-binding, unlike the resolutions passed by the Security Council. The General Assembly also oversees the UN budget. It allocates funding to peacekeeping operations approved by the Security Council. Every two years, the United Nations selects non-permanent members for the Security Council. It also appoints the Secretary-General, who is chosen based on the Security Council's suggestion. The General Assembly has no enforcement power, but it remains crucial within the UN framework. It sets the agenda, shapes norms and principles, and provides funding and oversight for peace and security activities by other UN bodies, like the Security Council. Other UN organisations, such as UNESCO, OHCHR, UNEP, and WHO also support peacekeeping. They do it by fostering stability and well-being through areas like education, human rights, the environment and health. Through this multi-sectoral cooperation, the UN system aims to prevent violence and create the conditions for sustainable peace. ## Subtopic 3: Achieving Global Security: Intergovernmental Alliances & Cooperation - The rise of transnational threats has led nations to form intergovernmental alliances like the UN, NATO, and EU to promote security cooperation. However, competing interests and priorities between member states can hamper joint decision-making. Critics argue NATO reflects Western interests more than #### The Need for Intergovernmental Security Cooperation After World War II, nations have come together and formed a few intergovernmental alliances to promote security cooperation. The need for such cooperation has been perceived as increasingly pressing in recent decades. This is due to the rise of transnational threats like terrorism, cyberattacks, climate change, and global pandemics. According to the 2022 Munich Security Report^[[5]](https://securityconference.org/assets/02_Dokumente/01_Publikationen/MunichSecurityReport_2022_TurningTheTide.pdf#page=15) , most citizens of major world powers agree that “their countries have no control over global events”. Today's threats do not stop at borders. They affect the security of entire regions and the stability of the international order. While there are still traditional military threats, non-traditional risks are also a major security concern. Mary Kaldor and other scholars believe that such security alliances were not only formed because of these global trends. Kaldor also believes these alliances exist because of policy decisions made by global powers. In her view, these powers have framed issues such as terrorism as "new wars". These “new wars” and global developments required new coordinated responses. As a result, there are now expanded networks for intelligence sharing, law enforcement and border security cooperation. Intergovernmental alliances are thus formed when two or more nations agree to work together towards a common goal. These alliances are typically there to address specific security challenges. For example, modern alliances are formed to combat terrorism, cyber threats, or the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Intergovernmental alliances allow nations to pool their resources and expertise to address these common challenges. They also allow nations to cooperate. This contributes to trust and understanding in international relations, and ultimately to peace. Alliances can also help deter potential aggressors by presenting a united front against external threats. #### Security Partnerships of Modern International Institutions The United Nations (UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the European Union (EU) are examples of intergovernmental organisations. The United Nations and International Security Cooperation The United Nations, formed in 1945 to promote global peace and security, plays a crucial role in managing conflicts and preventing violence worldwide. Its core institutions, such as the Security Council and the General Assembly, bear the primary responsibility for these tasks. Meanwhile, on the ground, the Peacekeeping Force also plays a vital role in maintaining peace. _See previous section: The UN’s Promotion of International Peace and Security_ The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)’s International Security Cooperation Framework NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was created in 1949 as a military pact among several ‘Western’ countries. While the Western label mostly referred to their geographic location, it also was a cultural identification tool for these countries against the other pole in the world that was shaping at the time: the Soviet Union. Western countries shared the same goal of containing Soviet power and communist influence, which led them to establish the NATO alliance. Proponents of NATO would argue that NATO has played a crucial role in promoting international security cooperation by bringing together nations with shared security interests. They would go on to say that NATO has been instrumental in promoting stability in Europe and North America - which have not seen proper war on their soil since World War 2 - or even the world as a whole. However, NATO critics see the organisation in a different light. They argue that the Alliance's actions and alleged expansionist motives have caused instability in certain regions. NATO's expansion, particularly in Eastern Europe, is seen by critics as the root cause of many international troubles, including the current conflict between Russia and Ukraine. Some go further in arguing NATO is a forum designed to promote US interests and its hegemony, rather than the bearer of some collective security. Besides these controversies, NATO faces a few internal issues and challenges that impact its effectiveness. Diverse national interests among member states frequently result in disagreements regarding strategic priorities. This impacts negatively on the decision-making process and reduces the alliance’s speed and effectiveness in responding to emerging security threats. For instance, Turkey, a member of NATO since 1952, has been referred to as a “wild card”^[[6]](https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/11/29/turkey-russia-ukraine-erdogan-putin-nato-geopolitical-wild-card/) in the NATO infrastructure by Western media. This is due to the Turkish state tending to pursue its own interests in the Middle East and Syria, its ties with Russia, its early opposition to the admission of Sweden and Finland to the alliance, and, more recently, its relatively neutral stance on the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Also, some members contribute a large share of their resources and military capabilities to NATO, while others have more minor contributions. US President Donald Trump had famously denounced these unequal contributions. Under his presidency, the US contribution to this budget fell from 22% to 16%, with Germany agreeing^[[7]](https://www.dw.com/en/germany-to-match-us-contribution-to-nato-budget/a-51446211) to pay more in return. Trump even considered^[[8]](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/14/us/politics/nato-president-trump.html) pulling the US out of the Alliance if other members’ spending did not increase. The US share has remained around the 16% mark ever since. Variations in national priorities and perceptions of what the real threats are often complicate NATO's decision-making process. Unanimous agreement amongst NATO’s member states is a requirement for decision-making. This can cause delays and affect the ability of the alliance to respond swiftly to security challenges. NATO's scope and capabilities are indeed limited by its intergovernmental nature. Still, NATO has engaged in peacebuilding efforts in Europe through various means, including collective defence. The collective defence principle is the cornerstone of its mission. Collective defence means any attack on one NATO country is considered an attack on all NATO countries. The collective defence principle has been instrumental in maintaining stability in Europe by deterring potential aggressors and preventing the outbreak of conflicts. NATO has also been active in crisis management and conflict resolution in Europe. The alliance has deployed peacekeeping and stabilisation missions in the Balkans. The alliance has developed a few partnerships with countries in the Euro-Atlantic region, including Ukraine, Georgia, and Moldova, to promote regional stability, security, and reform. Since the 1990s, it has been famously involved in supporting the democratic transition of central and eastern European countries following the collapse of the Soviet Union. The European Union’s Security Policies The European Union (EU) is an intergovernmental organisation of 27 European member states. Its ancestor is the European Coal and Steel Community, which was founded in 1952 by Germany and France to create the immediate conditions for peace in Europe. But, since then, its main preoccupation has evolved from mostly peacekeeping to the creation and expansion of a political and economic union. The EU’s current configuration was established in 1993 with the Maastricht Treaty, but European states have continued to find ways to deepen ‘European integration’ since then. But while the European Union has become far more than the ad hoc peace organisation it used to be, its evolution has also consisted of strengthening this commitment to building lasting peace on the continent and beyond. In recent years, the EU has developed a range of Common Security and Defence Policies (CSDP), including the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and the European Defence Agency (EDA). As part of these policies and its enhanced integration, the EU has undertaken missions like Operation Sophia and established positions like the High Representative for Foreign Affairs to enhance its role in global peace and security efforts. > The CSDP constitutes Europe’s main policy framework through which member states can develop a strategic European culture of security and defence, and address conflicts and crises together. It is designed to protect the Union and its citizens and strengthen international peace and security. Even outside of these security policies, through the establishment of economic and political integration among European states, the EU has arguably contributed to the longest period of peace in European history. The common market and a single currency only tightened these ties and interdependence, and have thus reduced the incentives for conflict. The EU has been a strong proponent of human rights and democracy, not only within its borders, but also globally. It claims to promote democratic governance, the rule of law, and fundamental rights for people around the world. The EU’s contribution to international cooperation cannot be overlooked, especially in areas relating to trade agreements, development aid, and diplomatic efforts. ## Subtopic 4: Principles of Peace Negotiation, Mediation and Reconciliation - Principles like impartial mediation, inclusivity, and transparent communication are critical for resolving conflicts through negotiation. However, deep historical and cultural divides, power imbalances between parties, and external interference often pose obstacles in negotiation processes. For inst #### The Main Peacemaking Principles The concept of negotiation is based essentially on the understanding that finding a cooperative approach is the best and most peaceful way of understanding the other party's position in any conflict or disagreement. In terms of strategy, negotiation can take two main forms: distributive negotiation and integrative negotiation. > Distributive negotiation is competitive. The parties see negotiation as a zero-sum game where one side must lose for the other to win. They compete to claim maximum value, even if it harms the other party. The goal is total victory. This adversarial approach can cause poor deals and damaged relationships.Integrative negotiation is collaborative. The parties aim for win-win solutions that maximize value for both sides. They cooperate to expand the pie before dividing it fairly. This requires understanding each other's needs, being creative, and building trust. The result is mutual gain and goodwill. The principles of peace negotiation, mediation, and reconciliation are central to resolving conflicts and promoting peaceful coexistence. These principles are particularly critical in achieving lasting peace in societies that have experienced prolonged conflicts. The first requirement of peace negotiation is the willingness of all parties involved to engage in dialogue. Dialogue is a paramount principle. Without it, no real agreement can even be considered. All parties involved must be willing to communicate with each other, share their concerns, and listen to the other party's perspective. During the negotiation process, the parties should be willing to compromise and find common ground to avoid further escalation of the conflict. The second principle is the need for impartiality and neutrality in the negotiation process. The mediator or negotiator must not have a vested interest in the outcome of the negotiation. The mediator should be an impartial third party who can facilitate the negotiation process and help the parties find a peaceful resolution. This principle is critical in ensuring that the parties involved in the negotiation process feel that their concerns and interests are being represented fairly. The third principle is the importance of inclusivity in the negotiation process. All parties involved should have a seat at the negotiating table, including those who may not have been directly involved in the conflict. This principle is critical in promoting reconciliation and building trust between the parties involved. The inclusion of all parties ensures that their voices are heard and that an acceptable solution can be reached. The fourth principle is the need for transparency and open communication during the negotiation process. The parties involved should be open and transparent about their concerns, interests, and goals. This principle is critical in building trust between the parties and promoting a peaceful resolution to the conflict. The role of diplomacy in negotiation and peacebuilding cannot be overstated. Diplomacy is the practice of conducting negotiations between nations or groups to resolve conflicts peacefully. Diplomacy involves the use of communication, negotiation, and compromise to achieve a peaceful resolution to a conflict. Diplomats use their expertise to facilitate negotiations, promote dialogue, and encourage cooperation between parties. Diplomacy can also involve the use of economic incentives and sanctions to encourage parties to negotiate and seek peaceful solutions to conflicts. This is particularly the case with Dollar diplomacy which involves the use of a country’s financial power to negotiate or extend its international influence. #### The Challenges in Applying Peace Principles to Real-Life Conflicts While the principles of peace negotiation, mediation, and reconciliation are invaluable in resolving conflicts and fostering harmony, their practical application in real-world situations is often fraught with difficulties. The existence of deep-rooted historical and cultural divides can constitute a major obstacle to negotiation, mediation, and reconciliation attempts. Long-standing conflicts stemming from complex historical grievances, ethnic or religious tensions, and cultural differences can frustrate mediation and reconciliation efforts as evidenced in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Power imbalances and competing political interests among parties involved in conflict can also hinder the progress of peace negotiations. Parties often seek favourable outcomes for themselves. The prevailing party may expect to be "rewarded" in negotiations rather than compromising, due to public pressure and nationalist sentiments, as well as social biases that dehumanise^[[9]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5528981/) or blame the defeated side. This can undermine the spirit of collaboration and compromise, necessary for a successful mediation. This could be due^[[10]](https://theowp.org/reports/the-psychology-of-compassion-and-conflict-why-dont-we-empathize-more/) to traumatic conflicts causing psychic numbing and thus lowering empathy levels. Post-conflict reconciliation means^[[11]](https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1406129) providing transitional justice. Transitional justice includes^[[12]](https://plato.stanford.edu/Entries/justice-transitional/) mechanisms such as truth commissions, reparations, criminal accountability, or any programme aimed at delivering justice to victims or people affected by conflict. This proves^[[13]](https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/the-many-challenges-facing-transitional-justice/) difficult as there can be logistical challenges and political opposition to such efforts. Moreover, post-conflict reconciliation finds a dilemma in striking the right balance between accountability and forgiveness, healing and punishing. Perhaps one of the greatest challenges to any mediation and reconciliation process, however, is the presence of external interference. That is, actors who may actively undermine the peace process to protect their own interests. External actors may have specific reasons to frustrate any peace negotiations and keep the conflict going. A country may benefit directly or indirectly from the continuation of conflict through economic or geopolitical gains, and directly or indirectly push to keep the peace negotiations a failure. The Northern Ireland Peace Agreement The Northern Ireland Peace Agreement, also known as the Good Friday Agreement, marked a major turning point in bringing an end to decades of violent conflict and civil war in Northern Ireland. Signed on April 10, 1998, after intense negotiations, this agreement set the stage for reconciliation between the Protestant Unionists and Catholic Republicans. At the core of the Peace Agreement is the establishment of a power-sharing government called the Northern Ireland Assembly. This arrangement enables unionist and nationalist parties to govern together and ensure all voices are represented. Cross-border institutions were also created to strengthen relations between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The agreement addresses the complex roots of the conflict including political rivalries and contested questions of identity and sovereignty. It recognizes the diverse aspirations of both communities and aims to include diverse voices in the region’s governance. The agreement also outlines methods for dealing with the legacy of the conflict through truth recovery, reconciliation initiatives, and victim support. It recognised and acknowledged the sufferings and pains the conflict had caused to all communities involved in this conflict. While the process of peace negotiation has not been plain sailing and the Good Friday Agreement has faced many challenges, it has nevertheless provided a framework for progress. Since negotiated and agreed upon, the Northern Ireland Peace Agreement has contributed^[[14]](https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/moving-past-troubles-future-northern-ireland-peace) to a significant reduction in violence. Still, Brexit has shown how difficult it is to maintain the balance^[[15]](https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12766) found in the Good Friday Agreement, with different communities holding opposing views. A key aspect of the Northern Ireland Peace Agreement was avoiding a hard border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. However, the UK's decision to leave the EU has disrupted this status quo. The majority of unionists supported Brexit, hoping to regain fuller sovereignty. In contrast, most nationalists wanted to remain in the EU and maintain closer ties with the Republic of Ireland. As a result, Brexit has exacerbated divisions between the two communities. Furthermore, societal divisions remain present in certain segments of society, such as education^[[16]](https://www.economist.com/britain/2021/07/29/northern-irelands-schools-are-slowly-becoming-less-segregated) and housing^[[17]](https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2017/oct/03/northern-ireland-shared-communities-economic-inequality-religion-neighbourhood) . These social realities are rooted in history and social perceptions and explain why certain parts of society lag behind. ## Subtopic 5: Community-Based Approaches to Peacebuilding - Community-based peacebuilding recognizes local groups are best placed to understand post-conflict challenges and develop tailored solutions. This approach stresses relationship building and inclusive participation. International NGOs like the Peace Corps and Red Cross take community-focused approach Community-based approaches involve^[18] engaging communities in peacebuilding efforts, focusing on their specific needs, and empowering them to take ownership of the peacebuilding process. These approaches to peacebuilding recognise that local groups are well-positioned to identify the distinct challenges their communities face after conflict. It is built on the idea that they can develop solutions tailored to their specific contexts. This approach also stresses the importance of building relationships and trust within communities, which helps strengthen social cohesion in the long run. Local organisations like non-profits, women's groups, youth networks, faith institutions, and grassroots movements frequently play important roles in community-led peacebuilding worldwide. Engaging these diverse community stakeholders helps ensure inclusive peacebuilding that represents various viewpoints. #### International Peace Corps The International Peace Corps, as an organisation, is heavily involved in community-based peacebuilding efforts. As an international NGO, it spends a good deal of budget and workforce to enable local peacebuilding action and accompany local groups. The Peace Corps is an independent, international agency run by the US government dedicated to promoting peace, friendship, and community-driven sustainable development worldwide. It was established in 1960 and has operations in over 60 countries. In practice, it sends American volunteers to live and work alongside local communities in countries around the world. These volunteers work alongside community members to address their specific needs and promote sustainable development. On the ground, Peace Corps volunteers work closely with community members. They aim to learn from local people while also sharing their skills and knowledge. Importantly, volunteers also facilitate peacebuilding. In this context, they work with communities to organise training and help develop conflict resolution skills within the local communities. The Peace Corps also partners with other organisations and government agencies to address the root causes of conflict and promote peaceful coexistence between groups. #### The International Red Cross and Principles of Impartiality The International Red Cross is another international NGO that is very active in community-based peacebuilding efforts. Guided by the humanitarian principles of impartiality, neutrality and independence, which it helped create as one of the world’s founding humanitarian organisations, the Red Cross provides^[[19]](https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo46479924.html) emergency humanitarian aid, including food, shelter and medical care to a multitude of people around the world. On the ground, the organisation works^[[20]](https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/applying-humanitarian-principles-reflecting-experience-international-committee-red-cross) with communities to strengthen their resilience and provide them with the skills and knowledge to address the root causes of conflict. The Red Cross also engages in advocacy efforts to promote peaceful coexistence and address the underlying drivers of conflict. The Red Cross takes a community-based approach by working directly with local volunteers, leaders, and institutions to understand the needs on the ground. Red Cross branches recruit volunteers within communities, which facilitates greater access, trust, and local ownership. Programming is based on close consultation with community members to adapt to their priorities, vulnerabilities, and capabilities. For example, the Red Cross may train community volunteer teams in first aid, disaster preparedness, or epidemic prevention so they can serve as first responders. It partners with local schools or clubs to offer programs promoting tolerance and non-violence values in youth. ___ The Peace Corps and the Red Cross are two central international organisations working to bring communities front and centre of the peacebuilding efforts in their home regions. However, these are only two examples: many more humanitarian organisations, agencies, and programmes exist. Still, communities also find very diverse ways to develop their own peacebuilding mechanisms, with minor assistance from international NGOs. This has been the case with peace movements like Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace in Liberia or PeacePlayers in Northern Ireland in the early 2000s. ## Sources and further reading - [What’s the role of UN peacekeepers?](https://www.aljazeera.com/program/inside-story/2023/9/22/whats-the-role-of-un-peacekeepers) — Al Jazeera, 2023 - [UN Peacekeeping: How do they decide to start a new mission?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=MiubA5lY2FY) — United Nations, 2023 - [UN Security Council holds emergency session on Hamas-Israel conflict](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDxgZDCy85c) — CBC News, 2023 - [Beyond Good Friday: the future of peace in Northern Ireland](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7NHsbJXhbBk) — The Economist, 2023 - [Does International Law and do International organisations promote peace, justice and prosperity?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCotXDVNyZY) — Bloomsbury Academic, 2019 - [Peacebuilding to Prevent and Resolve Conflict](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LHFY6L5ZT6w) — International Organization for Migration, 2020 - [What are the principles of UN peacekeeping?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-WKcM2lIQk4) — United Nations, 2021 - [Modern Peacebuilding | Building Peace that Lasts](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wdVSerKGW0) — Nonviolence International New York, 2020 - [What does proactive peacebuilding mean in practice?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=924bMEj-13k) — ISSAfricaTV, 2015 - [Making peacebuilding more effective](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a1N9gQTPJCM) — ISSAfricaTV, 2016 - [Peacekeeping Database](https://www.ipinst.org/providing-for-peacekeeping-database) — International Peace Institute - [Number of active United Nations peacekeeping missions](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-un-peacekeeping-missions) — Our World in Data - [2023 Global Peace Index](https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/GPI-2023-Web.pdf) — Institute for Economics & Peace, 2023 - [Peace Agreements Database](https://www.peaceagreements.org/) — University of Edinburgh - [Global peacekeeping data](https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/data) — United Nations Peacekeeping - [Special report: Truth, justice and reconciliation](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/24/truth-justice-reconciliation-civil-war-conflict) — Smith, D. et al. The Guardian, 2014 - [Does UN Peacekeeping work? Here’s what the data says](https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/12/1131552) — United Nations, 2022 - [A seat at the negotiating table: How women are building peace in Yemen](https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/seat-negotiating-table-how-women-are-building-peace-yemen) — Jaensch, J. The Lowy Institute, 2021 - [International Organisations in Peacebuilding: critical assessments and future impulses](https://www.aspr.ac.at/fileadmin/Downloads/Publikationen/Reports/ASPR-Report_No_2-2018.pdf) — Austrian Study Centre for Peace and Conflict Resolution, 2018 - [What Peacekeeping Can Learn from Peacebuilding: The Peacebuilding Dimensions of the A4P](https://theglobalobservatory.org/2018/06/what-peacekeeping-can-learn-from-peacebuilding-a4p/) — de Coning, C. IPI Global Observatory, 2018 - [What’s New about the UN’s New Agenda for Peace?](https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/whats-new-about-uns-new-agenda-peace) — Gowan, R. International Crisis Group, 2023 - [Negotiations, dialogue and mediation: Which approach leads to intra-state peace?](https://berghof-foundation.org/news/negotiations-dialogue-and-mediation) — Giessmann, H. J. Berghof Foundation, 2021 - [Participatory methods in peacebuilding work](https://berghof-foundation.org/library/participatory-methods-in-peacebuilding-work) — Berghof Foundation, 2023 - [Community engagement, protection and peacebuilding: reviewing evidence and practice](https://odihpn.org/publication/community-engagement-protection-and-peacebuilding-reviewing-evidence-and-practice/) — Davies, G. et al. Humanitarian Practice Network, 2023 - [Measuring Peacebuilding Cost-Effectiveness](https://www.visionofhumanity.org/measuring-peacebuilding-cost-effectiveness/) — Vision of Humanity - [Teaching ideas and recommendations](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/635faa1d6c0ae075b5716e40/6538e5dfbc3f56dd4bbf8689_The-Role-of-International-Organisations-in-Peace-and-Conflict.pdf) - [Where We Operate - Interactive Map of UN Peacekeeping Operations](https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/where-we-operate) — United Nations - [United Nations Peacekeeping - Teaching Guide and Resources](https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/pko_tg.31.8.23_final_0.pdf) — United Nations Visitors Services, New York - [United Nations Peacekeeping - Infographics](https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/infographics) — United Nations - [The United Nations matters - Teaching pack](https://una.org.uk/get-involved/learn-and-teach/un-matters-teaching-pack) — United Nations Association – UK - [United Nations Peacekeeping – Lesson Plans and Learning Activities](https://resourcehub01.blob.core.windows.net/training-files/Training%20Materials/003%20CPTM-EN/003-014%20Lesson%201.1%20United%20Nations%20Peacekeeping.pdf) — United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations - [UN Security Council: To the Rescue! – Lesson Plan and Worksheet](https://academy4sc.org/video/un-security-council-to-the-rescue/) — Academy 4SC - [Keeping the peace: Education Activities](https://www.awm.gov.au/visit/exhibitions/peacekeeping/education) — Australian War Memorial - [Designing a New UN Security Council - Lesson Plan, Reading Comprehension Activity](https://world101.cfr.org/sites/default/files/cta-download-files/2020/10/Designing%20a%20New%20UN%20Security%20Council%20Global%20Governance.pdf) — World101 - [Global Governance – Lesson Plans and Activities](https://world101.cfr.org/understanding-international-system/global-governance) — World101 - [Disarmament Education – Activities, Infographics, Presentations](https://education.unoda.org/) — United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs - [Conflict solution, peace-making and peacekeeping activities – Lesson Plan](https://practice-school.eu/activity5-conflict-solution-peace-making-and-peacekeeping-activities/#contacts) — PRACTICE - [Resolving Conflicts - Lessons and Activity Sheets](https://www.overcomingobstacles.org/portal/en/curricula/high-school/resolving-conflicts) — Overcoming Obstacles - [Conflict Resolution Unit - Facilitator Guide with Activities](https://www.tc.columbia.edu/media/centers-amp-labs/cae/blog-photos/Unit-3---Conflict-Resolution.pdf) — Haile-Manas Academy - [Lessons for Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills](https://www.creducation.net/resources/CR_Guidelines_and_10_CR_lessons_FCPS.pdf) — Fairfax County Public Schools - [Hodnotové strety hrou - Teacher's Guide and Educational Activities](https://www.pdcs.sk/publikacie/detail/hodnotove-strety-hrou) — Partners for Democratic Change Slovakia - [Global Conflicts and Human Rights – Lesson Plans and Activities](https://practice-school.eu/part2/module7/) — PRACTICE - [Newsthink - Teaching Resources focused on ongoing conflicts and wars](https://www.redcross.org.uk/get-involved/teaching-resources/newsthink-teaching-resources) — British Red Cross - [Global Conflict Tracker – Interactive atlas](https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker) — Center for Preventive Action - [Detailed interactive atlas of news from ongoing wars](https://liveuamap.com/) — Live Universal Awareness Map - [Conflict and its Consequences – Lesson Plans and Activities](https://www.redcross.org.uk/get-involved/teaching-resources/conflict-and-its-consequences-teaching-resources) — British Red Cross - [Chemical Weapons and the Laws of War - Teacher Briefing and Lesson Plan](https://www.redcross.org.uk/get-involved/teaching-resources/chemical-weapons) — British Red Cross - [Teaching About a Year of War in Ukraine - A collection of teaching ideas](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/02/learning/lesson-plans/teaching-about-a-year-of-war-in-ukraine.html) — The New York Times - [Humanitarian Education Curriculum Guidebook – Lessons and Resources](https://www.redcross.ca/crc/documents/How-We-Help/International-Humanitarian-Law/H-Ed-Curriculum-Guidebook.pdf) — Canadian Red Cross - [Forced to Fight - Interactive online resource based on personal stories](https://forcedtofight.ca/) — Canadian Red Cross - [Teaching About War – Lesson Plans and Articles](https://educators4sc.org/teaching-about-war/) — Educators 4SC - [The Outbreak of War – Lesson Plan of the First World War](https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/teaching-resources/teaching-secondary/uk-history-and-literature/first-world-war/outbreak-war) — British Council - [The Korean War and It’s Legacy – Inquiry-Based Learning Activities](https://koreanwarlegacy.org/teaching-tools/korean-war-legacy/) — Korean War Legacy Foundation - [The Extermination of a Nation: The Genocide in Rwanda – Lesson Plan](https://origins.osu.edu/teach/extermination-nation-genocide-rwanda) — Ohio State University - [Lesson Plans and Activities on Genocide in Rwanda](https://survivors-fund.org.uk/learn/education/lesson-plans/) — Survivors Fund - [Maintain International Peace and Security](https://www.un.org/en/our-work/maintain-international-peace-and-security) — United Nations - [Peacebuilding and Peace Preservation](https://www.iom.int/peacebuilding-and-peace-preservation) — International Organization for Migration - [Terminology](https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/terminology) — United Nations Peacekeeping - [New York Diplomacy for Peace Exhibit Presentation](https://diplomacy4peace.org/exhibitions) — United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs, 2023 - [Peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace building](https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations/Peacekeeping-peacemaking-and-peace-building) — Britannica - [Peace and Security](https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/peace-and-security) — United Nations - [Peace Mediation Guidelines](https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/eeas_mediation_guidelines_14122020.pdf) — European External Action Service, 2020 - [Guidance for Effective Mediation](https://peacemaker.un.org/resources/guidance-effective-mediation) — United Nations, 2012 - [Peacebuilding and Peace Preservation](https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/documents/TRD%20-%20Infosheet%20Peacebuilding%20and%20Peace%20Preservation.pdf) — International Organization for Migration, 2021 - [Conflict Prevention, Peace building and Mediation](https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/conflict-prevention-peace-building-and-mediation_en) — European External Action Service, 2021 - [Human Rights and Peacekeeping](https://cdn.peaceopstraining.org/course_promos/human_rights_2/human_rights_2_english.pdf) — Peace Operations Training Institute - [An Introduction to the UN System and Its Role in International Peace and Security](https://cdn.peaceopstraining.org/course_promos/intro_to_un_system/intro_to_un_system_english.pdf) — Peace Operations Training Institute - [Mediation and Dialogue Facilitation in the OSCE](https://www.osce.org/secretariat/126646) — Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, 2014 - [Is The Future Of Peacekeeping Peaceful?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&si=ugaF1-9iPL3gAng2&v=50CGTTeNtq8&feature=youtu.be) — Zimmerman, S. TEDx Talks, 2016 - [The Role of International Organizations in Armed Conflict](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nj14pBz19P8) — American Society of International Law, 2021 - [The role of international organisations in making peace](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GtvE_3ajaeY) — Blavatnik School of Government, 2018 - [Conflict Prevention in a Changing World: The Role of International Organizations](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebaYQIFBP34) — Woodrow Wilson Center, 2019 - [The Power of Peacekeeping](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C8VooaZNcFE) — Howard, L. TEDx Talks, 2018 - [From Conflict Resolution to Strategic Peacebuilding](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LwsThUncRxE) — Lederach, J. P. University of Notre Dame, 2011 - [Cooperation for Development and Security](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w54IIO0Es_o) — Global Security Forum, 2021 - [Negotiating Peace: A Guide to International Mediation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1MsNW9PhJA0) — International Peace Institute, 2018 - [Art and Criteria of a Successful Peace Negotiation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XkZKG4ryYlg) — Afghan Institute for Strategic Studies, 2020 - [Global Security: Cooperation or Confrontation?](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7A4z8N2eglc) — Deutsche Welle News, 2014 ## About the author: Francis Jegede, University of Derby Francis Jegede is an experienced academic with over 3 decades in academia in the UK Higher Education sector. He is an Associate Professor at the University of Derby, focusing his research and teaching on diplomacy, conflict resolution, negotiations, terrorism, and political economy of violence. He has held several senior academic positions and developed programs in his disciplines. Passionate about enhancing the student experience, he provides work-based learning opportunities including organising educational field trips to Europe, Africa, and Asia. Over the course of his career, Francis has developed academic links with a number of national and international institutions and organisations including the United Nations Office in Geneva. --- # The Sahel's Coup Belt URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/sahel-coup-belt Published: 2026-09-02 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Atlas editorial team Category: Political System Region: Sub-Saharan Africa Countries: Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Sudan, Chad Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) A band of states from the Atlantic to the Red Sea has spent the past decade replacing elected governments with soldiers. The pattern is regional, and the causes travel. Between the Sahara and the savannah runs a strip of countries that share a climate, a set of trade routes and, increasingly, a form of government. Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger are run by officers who took power by force. Chad's transfer of authority after the death of its long-serving president followed the form of a succession rather than an election. Sudan's army and its paramilitary rival turned a promised civilian transition into a war between two commands. ## The argument the soldiers make In each case the justification offered was security. Civilian governments had failed to stop armed groups operating across borders that exist on maps more firmly than on the ground. The claim was not baseless: insurgencies rooted in local grievances over land, cattle and water had spread faster than any of the states could respond, and foreign counter-terrorism partnerships produced patrols rather than governance. What the coups have not produced is the security they promised. Control of the capital is not control of the countryside, and a government whose legitimacy rests on a security argument has to keep delivering security. ## What the states have in common Three structural features recur across the belt. 1. **Thin fiscal bases.** Revenue comes from a small number of commodities and from external partners. Neither source requires the state to bargain with its own population, which weakens the habit of accountability in both directions. 2. **Young populations, slow economies.** Median age across the belt is under twenty. Formal employment absorbs a fraction of each cohort entering the labour market. 3. **Borders that divide communities rather than states.** Pastoralist routes, language groups and trading families cross every line drawn in the colonial period, which makes a purely national security policy structurally incomplete. ## Why it matters beyond the region The belt sits on the land routes north. Policy in Europe has for a decade treated the Sahel primarily through the lens of migration and counter-terrorism, which has tended to privilege whichever authority can offer cooperation on those two files. That is a weak filter for distinguishing durable governments from temporary ones. Meanwhile the juntas have diversified their partnerships. The withdrawal of French forces and the arrival of other security providers did not change the underlying arithmetic: external troops can hold positions, but they cannot collect taxes, run courts or settle disputes over grazing rights. > The question in the Sahel is not who holds the presidential palace. It is > whether any authority can make a claim on the countryside that the countryside > accepts. ## Reading the region on the map Switch the globe to the Encyclopedia view and compare this group against the corruption and extreme-poverty layers. The belt does not stand out because its states are uniquely badly run; it stands out because the gap between the territory each state claims and the territory it administers is unusually wide. --- # Who Pays for the Nordic Model URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/nordic-model-under-strain Published: 2026-08-21 Last updated: 2026-09-30 Author: Atlas editorial team Category: Living Conditions Region: Western & Central Europe Countries: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) The northern European welfare states still deliver the outcomes they are famous for. The question is what is holding the financing together as the population ages. The five Nordic states appear near the top of almost every ranking the Atlas tracks: human development, life expectancy, internet access, trust in institutions. They are also among the most heavily taxed societies in the world, and the two facts are related in a way that is often described backwards. ## The bargain, stated plainly High taxation is politically survivable in these countries because the services it buys are used by everyone, including people who could afford to opt out. Universal provision is not generosity; it is the mechanism that keeps the middle class inside the system and therefore willing to pay for it. Where health care, childcare and schooling become services for people who cannot afford alternatives, the constituency defending their funding shrinks. ## Three pressures on the arithmetic **Ageing.** The ratio of working-age adults to retirees is falling across all five countries. A model financed largely from labour income is directly exposed to that shift, and raising the retirement age recovers only part of it. **Labour supply.** Each of the five has depended at different points on inward migration to staff health and care services. Integration outcomes have varied considerably between them, and the political argument about migration is in large part an argument about who will do the work the model requires. **Resource income.** Norway's position is not typical: its sovereign fund converts finite hydrocarbon revenue into a permanent claim on global assets. That gives it options the other four do not have, and it is worth remembering before treating the five as a single case. ## Where they diverge Denmark's labour market combines weak job protection with strong unemployment support. Sweden has gone furthest in opening publicly funded services to private providers. Finland carries a defence burden the others did not share for most of the post-war period. Iceland is small enough that national policy behaves more like municipal policy. The common feature is not a single policy design. It is the willingness to reorganise the details while keeping the universal principle intact. ## What to watch Whether the model holds will show up first in waiting times and staffing in municipal care, not in headline tax rates. Those are the places where the promise of universal quality is tested by ordinary people, and where the political consent that funds everything else is either renewed or lost. --- # Shipping Lanes and Leverage in the Red Sea URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/red-sea-shipping-leverage Published: 2026-08-07 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Atlas editorial team Category: International Relations Region: Middle East & North Africa Countries: United Arab Emirates, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Yemen Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) A corridor two dozen kilometres wide at its narrowest point carries a large share of the trade between Asia and Europe. Everyone on its shores knows it. The Bab el-Mandeb strait is narrow enough that a ship passing through it is within reach of the shore on both sides. North of it lies the Suez route to Europe; south of it, the Indian Ocean. Around it sit states whose fortunes have very little in common except that they all border the same water. ## Why the corridor concentrates power Chokepoints reward whoever can threaten traffic more than they reward whoever can protect it. Protection requires navies, bases and sustained expenditure. Disruption requires far less. That asymmetry is the single most important fact about the security politics of this stretch of coast, and it explains why the insurance market reacts faster to events here than any government does. ## The actors and what they want **The Gulf states** treat the corridor as the seaward extension of their own economies. Their diversification plans, from logistics hubs to tourism and financial services, assume that goods and people move freely through it. **Djibouti** has converted its position into a business model, hosting foreign military facilities from several countries at once and running the port that gives landlocked Ethiopia most of its access to the sea. **Ethiopia**, with a population above a hundred million and no coastline, has made access to a port a stated national priority. That ambition touches the sovereignty of neighbours, which is why it has been treated in the region as a security question rather than a commercial one. **Yemen**, divided by war, contains the actors with the greatest ability to interrupt traffic and the least to lose from doing so. ## The Horn is not a spectator The African shore is often written about as the unstable side of a corridor managed from the Arabian side. That reading misses how much of the region's politics is now shaped by investment decisions taken in Gulf capitals: port concessions, agricultural land, telecoms, and the financing of rival factions in neighbouring conflicts. > A strait does not create a region. But when the alternative route round the > Cape adds two weeks to every voyage, it creates a shared interest strong > enough to behave like one. ## What this means for the map This group appears in the Atlas as a single unit because the coastline links states that the conventional regional categories separate: the Gulf sits in the Middle East, the Horn in sub-Saharan Africa. Read through the corridor instead, the connections between them are the most consequential thing about either. --- # Mekong Dams and the Politics of Downstream URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/mekong-dams-downstream Published: 2026-07-18 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Atlas editorial team Category: Society Countries: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) One river feeds the rice fields and fisheries of five countries. The decisions that determine how much water arrives are taken upstream, by whoever built first. The Mekong supports one of the largest inland fisheries in the world and the rice economy of the delta at its mouth. Its usefulness depends on a rhythm: a flood season that pushes water backwards into Cambodia's great lake, and a dry season that lets it drain again. Dams smooth that rhythm out. Smoothing it out is precisely what they are built to do. ## Upstream advantage Hydropower is the most attractive export a mountainous, landlocked economy can develop, and Laos has pursued it deliberately. China's cascade on the upper river came earlier and is larger. Neither country is doing anything unusual; states generally use the resources inside their borders. The difficulty is that a river crosses borders and a reservoir does not. The result is a familiar structure. The benefits of storage are national and countable: megawatt-hours, export earnings. The costs are regional and diffuse. A fish migration that fails. A sediment load that no longer reaches the delta. A flood pulse that arrives late. ## The delta is subsiding Vietnam's delta provinces sit barely above sea level. They are losing ground in two directions at once: sediment that used to rebuild the land is trapped behind dams upstream, while groundwater extraction causes the surface itself to sink. Salt water moves further inland each dry season, and rice gives way to shrimp ponds in fields where it grew for generations. ## Governance without enforcement The river commission that coordinates the four lower-basin states can convene, study and recommend. It cannot refuse a dam. Its membership does not include the largest upstream builder. What exists is consultation; what would change outcomes is a right of veto that no government has been willing to grant a neighbour. ## What to look for The measurable signal is not the number of dams. It is the shape of the annual flood: how high the peak, how long it lasts, how far the reverse flow into Cambodia's lake reaches. Those figures describe the livelihood of tens of millions of people more accurately than any national growth statistic in the countries the river passes through. --- # The Andes and the Long Shadow of the Mining Economy URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/andes-mining-economy Published: 2026-06-30 Last updated: 2026-10-16 Author: Atlas editorial team Category: Historical Roots Countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Five centuries after the silver mountain at Potosi, the region that supplies much of the world's copper and lithium is still arguing about who the ground belongs to. The extraction economy of the Andes is older than any state in it. Silver from Potosi financed an empire on another continent, and the labour that produced it was organised by conscription. That sequence, a resource of global value with a distant beneficiary and a local population bearing the cost, set a template that independence did not dissolve. ## Why the pattern persisted Colonial extraction built infrastructure pointing outward: roads to ports rather than between provinces. It concentrated administrative capacity where the resource was, and it established a revenue habit in which the central state lived off a royalty rather than off broad taxation. Both features survived into the republics. The consequence shows up as a specific political vulnerability. A government financed by mineral rent does not need a functioning income tax, and therefore never has to strike the bargain with citizens that building one requires. When prices are high the state can spend without asking; when they fall it must suddenly ask for a great deal. ## The current cycle Copper and lithium have made the central Andes strategically important again, for reasons entirely unlike the last boom: electrification rather than coinage. Chile and Peru together account for a very large share of world copper output, and the salt flats spanning Chile, Bolivia and Argentina hold a substantial part of known lithium reserves. Three approaches are being tried at once. Chile has moved toward state participation in lithium through public-private arrangements. Bolivia has kept the resource in state hands and struggled to industrialise it. Argentina's provinces have negotiated separately and attracted faster private investment. None of the three has yet shown that it can convert the resource into a diversified economy, which is the goal every one of them states. ## What has genuinely changed Two things. First, water. Lithium extraction in the salt flats draws on brine in some of the driest inhabited places on earth, and the communities affected are now parties to the negotiation rather than subjects of it; consultation requirements carry real legal force in several jurisdictions. Second, the buyers. Demand sits in battery supply chains whose midstream processing is concentrated in Asia, which means the Andes are negotiating over the least profitable step of the chain. Moving up it is the stated ambition of every government in this group. > The historical question in the Andes was who owned the mountain. The current > one is who owns the refinery. ## Reading it on the map Compare this group against the GDP per capita and extreme-poverty layers. The boom years are visible in the aggregates. What the aggregates do not show is how unevenly the mining districts themselves fared, which is what the politics of the region has been about since Potosi. --- # Living Through the War: Daily Life in Ukraine URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/ukraine-war-daily-life Published: 2026-01-22 Last updated: 2026-09-30 Author: Atlas editorial team Category: Living Conditions Region: Eastern Europe & Central Asia Countries: Ukraine Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Air-raid schedules, rolling blackouts and a workforce reorganised around them — how ordinary routines adapted to a fourth year of full-scale war. The most striking thing about daily life in wartime Ukraine is how much of it looks unremarkable. Cafés open, children take exams, trams run on schedule. The war is present less as interruption than as a layer of logistics laid over everything else. ## The grid decides the day Strikes on generation and transmission capacity turned electricity into the organising constraint of the working day. Households learned their district's outage schedule the way they once learned tram timetables. Businesses that could afford generators became informal public infrastructure: the café with power becomes the neighbourhood office. ## Work reorganised Remote work, already normalised by the pandemic, absorbed much of the shock. The IT sector kept exporting throughout. Elsewhere the labour market has been reshaped by mobilisation and by the departure of several million people, mostly women and children, leaving acute shortages in healthcare, transport and construction. ## What the numbers miss Aggregate indicators capture the loss of output but not its distribution. Frontline oblasts and the rest of the country now differ more from each other than Ukraine as a whole differs from its neighbours. --- # The Regime of Vladimir Putin URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/putins-regime Published: 2025-11-04 Last updated: 2026-09-30 Author: Atlas editorial team Category: Political System Region: Eastern Europe & Central Asia Countries: Russia Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) How a transitional presidency of the late 1990s hardened into a personalised system in which elections, courts and media all answer to one office. Vladimir Putin took office as acting president on the last day of 1999, presented as a technocratic stabiliser after a decade of economic collapse. A quarter of a century later the office he holds bears little resemblance to the one he inherited. What changed was not a single constitutional rupture but a long series of ordinary-looking adjustments, each defensible on its own terms, which together removed every institution capable of saying no. ## The three phases **Consolidation (2000–2008).** The first term dismantled the independent television channels and brought the regional governors under central appointment. High oil prices paid for a genuine rise in living standards, which bought consent for the political narrowing that accompanied it. **Managed succession (2008–2012).** The constitutional two-term limit was respected in form: Dmitry Medvedev held the presidency while Putin served as prime minister. The arrangement demonstrated that the formal rules could be satisfied without the distribution of power changing at all. **Personalisation (2012–present).** The protests that followed the 2011 parliamentary elections marked the turn. Legislation on "foreign agents", "undesirable organisations" and later on "discrediting the armed forces" moved the boundaries of permitted speech steadily inward. The 2020 constitutional amendments reset the presidential term count to zero. ## What holds it together Three mechanisms do most of the work. 1. **Resource rent.** Hydrocarbon revenue funds the security services, the military and the public-sector wage bill without requiring the bargaining with taxpayers that a diversified economy would force. 2. **Elite dependency.** Property rights at the top are conditional. Wealth is held at the pleasure of the system, which makes defection costly in a way that ideology alone never could. 3. **Information management.** State television remains the primary news source for older voters, while the independent press has largely relocated abroad. ## Where it is fragile The system's strength is also its constraint. Personalised rule solves the problem of coordination among elites but leaves succession unresolved: there is no mechanism for transferring authority that does not also transfer the ability to prosecute predecessors. The war in Ukraine has deepened the dependence on the security apparatus and narrowed the range of people whose advice reaches the centre. > Regimes of this type rarely fall because of opposition strength. They fall > because the people inside them stop believing that the current arrangement is > the safest one available. ## Further reading in the Atlas The regime's external behaviour is covered in the region portrait of Eastern Europe and Central Asia; its economic base is visible in the GDP per capita and corruption data layers on the globe. --- # Enlargement Returns: The EU's Eastern Question URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/news/eu-enlargement-east Published: 2025-09-30 Last updated: 2026-09-30 Author: Atlas editorial team Category: International Relations Region: Eastern Europe & Central Asia Countries: Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine Publisher: Atlas of Today's World (https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/) Accession talks with Ukraine and Moldova reopened a debate the Union had shelved for a decade — and exposed how little its institutions are designed for thirty-plus members. For most of the 2010s, enlargement was the European Union's dormant policy. The full-scale invasion of Ukraine revived it within months, turning what had been a technical process into the Union's central strategic question. ## Three candidates, three problems **Ukraine** brings the strongest political case and the hardest practical one: a large agricultural sector, wartime institutions, and territory under occupation. **Moldova** is small enough to absorb but carries an unresolved separatist region and deep energy dependence. **Georgia** illustrates that candidate status is reversible in practice: the governing party's legislative turn has effectively frozen the process. ## The internal arithmetic Accession changes the maths of every existing policy. Cohesion funds and the common agricultural policy would both need restructuring; qualified-majority voting becomes unavoidable if unanimity is not to produce permanent deadlock. Enlargement is therefore, for current members, primarily a debate about themselves. --- # Eastern Europe & Central Asia URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/eastern-europe-central-asia/full-page Eastern Europe is a region shaped by resilience, where imperial facades, communist blocks, and modern glass towers coexist, reflecting a past that still influences daily life. Society balances tradition with rapid change, navigating political skepticism, economic transition, and European integration. Living conditions vary between vibrant capitals and modest provincial towns, where hard work, education, and family networks remain central. Pragmatic, resourceful, and quietly ambitious, the region moves between memory and progress with persistent strength. Countries: Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Georgia, Armenia, Moldova --- # Western & Central Europe URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/western-central-europe/full-page A dense cluster of small states bound by a single market, open borders and a shared postwar promise of prosperity. Western and Central Europe combines some of the world's highest living standards with ageing populations, contested migration politics and an energy transition that reshapes its industry. Its societies are secular, highly urbanised and deeply networked — and increasingly aware that the security order they took for granted is no longer given. Countries: Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Poland, Romania, Netherlands, Belgium, Greece, Czechia, Sweden, Portugal, Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Serbia, Denmark, Finland, Slovakia, Norway, Ireland, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Lithuania, Slovenia, North Macedonia, Latvia, Kosovo, Cyprus, Estonia, Montenegro, Luxembourg, Malta, Iceland, Jersey, Isle of Man, Andorra, Guernsey, Faeroe Is., Monaco, Liechtenstein, San Marino, Åland, Vatican --- # Middle East & North Africa URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/middle-east-north-africa/full-page From the Atlantic coast of Morocco to the Iranian plateau, MENA is young, urban and unevenly rich. Hydrocarbon wealth has built city-states of extraordinary affluence next to countries hollowed out by war and sanctions. Water scarcity, a population bulge entering the labour market and the slow unwinding of the post-2011 settlements define the decade ahead. Countries: Egypt, Turkey, Iran, Algeria, Iraq, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Syria, Tunisia, Jordan, United Arab Emirates, Israel, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Western Sahara --- # Sub-Saharan Africa URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/sub-saharan-africa/full-page The world's youngest region and the one that will supply most of the next generation of workers. Sub-Saharan Africa spans forty-nine countries with little in common beyond that label: stable middle-income democracies, fast-urbanising giants, and a Sahel belt where state authority is retreating. Mobile-first economies, a continental free-trade area and a scramble over critical minerals are rewriting how the region connects to the world. Countries: Nigeria, Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, Angola, Ghana, Mozambique, Madagascar, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, Malawi, Zambia, Senegal, Chad, Somalia, Zimbabwe, Guinea, Rwanda, Benin, Burundi, South Sudan, Togo, Sierra Leone, Eritrea, Congo, Liberia, Central African Republic, Mauritania, Namibia, Gambia, Botswana, Gabon, Lesotho, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Mauritius, eSwatini, Djibouti, Comoros, Cabo Verde, São Tomé and Principe, Seychelles --- # South Asia URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/south-asia/full-page A quarter of humanity on three percent of the world's land. South Asia holds the fastest-growing large economy, two nuclear-armed rivals and the populations most exposed to heat and flooding. Rapid growth in services sits beside persistent malnutrition; democratic forms sit beside tightening control of media and courts. Countries: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives --- # East Asia URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/east-asia/full-page The workshop of the global economy and the arena where the century's central rivalry plays out. East Asia has the world's densest manufacturing networks, its most advanced chip industry and its steepest demographic decline. Taiwan, the Korean peninsula and the East China Sea keep military risk permanently on the agenda. Countries: China, Japan, South Korea, North Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Mongolia, Macao --- # Southeast Asia & Oceania URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/southeast-asia-oceania/full-page An archipelagic world of trade routes, hedging diplomacy and climate exposure. Southeast Asia is growing fast and industrialising as supply chains diversify out of China, while the Pacific island states negotiate their sovereignty between great powers and rising seas. Australia and New Zealand anchor the region's wealthy, resource-heavy south. Countries: Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, Australia, Cambodia, Papua New Guinea, Laos, Singapore, New Zealand, Timor-Leste, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Brunei, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Samoa, Guam, Kiribati, Micronesia, Tonga, Marshall Islands, Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, Palau, Cook Islands, Nauru, Tuvalu, Niue --- # North America URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/north-america/full-page Two wealthy federations and the world's largest military and financial power. North America sets much of the technological and cultural agenda others react to, while its own politics turn on polarisation, migration at the southern border and the cost of housing and healthcare. Countries: United States of America, Canada, Bermuda, Greenland, Saint Pierre and Miquelon --- # Latin America & the Caribbean URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/latin-america-caribbean/full-page The most urbanised region of the global south and among the most unequal. Latin America swings between electoral cycles with unusual speed, carries some of the world's highest homicide rates, and holds resources — lithium, copper, soy, the Amazon — that the energy transition has made strategic. Countries: Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina, Peru, Venezuela, Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Bolivia, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Paraguay, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama, Uruguay, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Belize, Bahamas, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Curaçao, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Virgin Islands of the United States, Aruba, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Cayman Islands, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, Turks and Caicos Islands, St-Martin, British Virgin Islands, Anguilla, St-Barthélemy, Montserrat, Falkland Islands --- # Antarctica URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/region/antarctica/full-page Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, almost entirely covered by ice up to four kilometres thick. It has no permanent population; scientists from dozens of countries live at research stations. Under the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 the continent is reserved for peaceful purposes and science, territorial claims are frozen and mining is banned — while its ice sheets hold the key to future sea levels. Countries: --- # Russia–Ukraine War — The war and the states it reshaped URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/global-issue/russia-ukraine-war/full-page The largest interstate war in Europe since 1945, and the countries whose security, economy and population movements it rearranged. The full portrait carries the Atlas entry A Decade of War in Ukraine. Countries: Ukraine, Russia, Belarus, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia --- # Country data: latest values of all indicators URL: https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/ - HDI: Human Development Index — United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (https://hdr.undp.org/) - Life expectancy: Life expectancy at birth — UN World Population Prospects (https://population.un.org/wpp/) - GDP per capita: GDP per capita (PPP, int-$) — World Bank (https://data.worldbank.org/) - Political regime: Political regime — V-Dem (Regimes of the World), via Our World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/political-regime) - Democracy: Electoral democracy index — V-Dem, via Our World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/electoral-democracy-index) - Corruption: Corruption Perceptions Index — Transparency International (https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi) - Extreme poverty: Population in extreme poverty — World Bank Poverty and Inequality Platform (https://pip.worldbank.org/) - CO₂ per capita: CO₂ emissions per capita — Global Carbon Budget (https://globalcarbonbudget.org/) - Internet users: Share of population using the internet — International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (https://www.itu.int/) | Country | Region | HDI | Life expectancy | GDP per capita | Political regime | Democracy | Corruption | Extreme poverty | CO₂ per capita | Internet users | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [China](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/china) | East Asia | 0.797 (2023) | 78.0 yrs (2023) | $25,067 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.07 (2025) | 43/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2022) | 8.7 t (2024) | 91.6 % (2025) | | [India](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/india) | South Asia | 0.685 (2023) | 72.0 yrs (2023) | $10,039 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.38 (2025) | 38/100 (2024) | 5.3 % (2022) | 2.2 t (2024) | 70.0 % (2025) | | [United States of America](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/united-states-of-america) | North America | 0.938 (2023) | 79.3 yrs (2023) | $76,931 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.74 (2025) | 65/100 (2024) | 1.1 % (2024) | 14.2 t (2024) | 94.7 % (2024) | | [Indonesia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/indonesia) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.728 (2023) | 71.1 yrs (2023) | $15,091 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.46 (2025) | 37/100 (2024) | 4.0 % (2025) | 2.9 t (2024) | 72.8 % (2024) | | [Pakistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/pakistan) | South Asia | 0.544 (2023) | 67.6 yrs (2023) | $5,617 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.30 (2025) | 27/100 (2024) | 23.0 % (2024) | 0.7 t (2024) | 57.3 % (2024) | | [Brazil](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/brazil) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.786 (2023) | 75.8 yrs (2023) | $20,025 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.78 (2025) | 34/100 (2024) | 3.0 % (2024) | 2.3 t (2024) | 84.5 % (2024) | | [Nigeria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/nigeria) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.560 (2023) | 54.5 yrs (2023) | $8,145 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.51 (2025) | 26/100 (2024) | 41.8 % (2022) | 0.6 t (2024) | 41.2 % (2024) | | [Bangladesh](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bangladesh) | South Asia | 0.685 (2023) | 74.7 yrs (2023) | $8,677 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.20 (2025) | 23/100 (2024) | 5.9 % (2022) | 0.6 t (2024) | 53.4 % (2024) | | [Russia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/russia) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.832 (2023) | 73.2 yrs (2023) | $42,358 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.17 (2025) | 22/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2020) | 12.3 t (2024) | 94.4 % (2024) | | [Mexico](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mexico) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.789 (2023) | 75.1 yrs (2023) | $21,912 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.47 (2025) | 26/100 (2024) | 1.6 % (2024) | 3.5 t (2024) | 83.1 % (2024) | | [Japan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/japan) | East Asia | 0.925 (2023) | 84.7 yrs (2023) | $48,283 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.82 (2025) | 71/100 (2024) | 1.2 % (2020) | 7.8 t (2024) | 85.5 % (2024) | | [Ethiopia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ethiopia) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.497 (2023) | 67.3 yrs (2023) | $3,095 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.26 (2025) | 37/100 (2024) | 38.6 % (2021) | 0.1 t (2024) | 21.9 % (2024) | | [Philippines](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/philippines) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.720 (2023) | 69.8 yrs (2023) | $10,748 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.39 (2025) | 33/100 (2024) | 11.5 % (2023) | 1.5 t (2024) | 67.3 % (2024) | | [Egypt](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/egypt) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.754 (2023) | 71.6 yrs (2023) | $17,265 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.19 (2025) | 30/100 (2024) | 1.4 % (2021) | 2.2 t (2024) | 74.6 % (2024) | | [Vietnam](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/vietnam) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.766 (2023) | 74.6 yrs (2023) | $15,457 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.15 (2025) | 40/100 (2024) | 1.6 % (2022) | 3.7 t (2024) | 84.2 % (2024) | | [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/dem-rep-congo) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.522 (2023) | 61.9 yrs (2023) | $1,641 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.31 (2025) | 20/100 (2024) | 85.3 % (2020) | 0.1 t (2024) | 19.7 % (2024) | | [Turkey](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/turkey) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.853 (2023) | 77.2 yrs (2023) | $37,301 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.29 (2025) | 34/100 (2024) | 0.2 % (2023) | 5.9 t (2024) | 89.8 % (2025) | | [Germany](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/germany) | Western & Central Europe | 0.959 (2023) | 81.4 yrs (2023) | $62,824 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.83 (2025) | 75/100 (2024) | 0.7 % (2022) | 6.8 t (2024) | 93.5 % (2024) | | [Iran](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/iran) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.799 (2023) | 77.7 yrs (2023) | $16,834 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.16 (2025) | 23/100 (2024) | 2.5 % (2023) | 8.7 t (2024) | 85.3 % (2024) | | [Thailand](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/thailand) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.798 (2023) | 76.4 yrs (2023) | $22,432 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.42 (2025) | 34/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2024) | 3.7 t (2024) | 90.9 % (2024) | | [France](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/france) | Western & Central Europe | 0.920 (2023) | 83.3 yrs (2023) | $55,125 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.87 (2025) | 67/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2023) | 4.0 t (2024) | 88.7 % (2024) | | [United Kingdom](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/united-kingdom) | Western & Central Europe | 0.946 (2023) | 81.3 yrs (2023) | $53,993 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.77 (2025) | 71/100 (2024) | 0.4 % (2021) | 4.5 t (2024) | 95.5 % (2024) | | [Italy](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/italy) | Western & Central Europe | 0.915 (2023) | 83.7 yrs (2023) | $53,606 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.75 (2025) | 54/100 (2024) | 0.9 % (2023) | 5.1 t (2024) | 89.2 % (2024) | | [South Africa](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/south-africa) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.741 (2023) | 66.1 yrs (2023) | $13,592 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.74 (2025) | 41/100 (2024) | 17.4 % (2022) | 6.9 t (2024) | 78.4 % (2024) | | [Tanzania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tanzania) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.555 (2023) | 67.0 yrs (2023) | $3,821 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.37 (2025) | 41/100 (2024) | 51.3 % (2018) | 0.3 t (2024) | 31.2 % (2024) | | [Myanmar](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/myanmar) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.609 (2023) | 66.9 yrs (2023) | $5,137 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.08 (2025) | 16/100 (2024) | 10.3 % (2017) | 0.6 t (2024) | 45.4 % (2020) | | [Kenya](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kenya) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.628 (2023) | 63.6 yrs (2023) | $5,995 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.56 (2025) | 32/100 (2024) | 45.5 % (2022) | 0.4 t (2024) | 35.0 % (2024) | | [South Korea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/south-korea) | East Asia | 0.937 (2023) | 84.3 yrs (2023) | $55,697 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.82 (2025) | 64/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2021) | 11.3 t (2024) | 97.9 % (2024) | | [Colombia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/colombia) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.788 (2023) | 77.7 yrs (2023) | $18,779 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.68 (2025) | 39/100 (2024) | 8.5 % (2024) | 1.8 t (2024) | 79.3 % (2024) | | [Spain](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/spain) | Western & Central Europe | 0.918 (2023) | 83.7 yrs (2023) | $49,318 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.82 (2025) | 56/100 (2024) | 0.8 % (2023) | 4.6 t (2024) | 95.8 % (2024) | | [Argentina](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/argentina) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.865 (2023) | 77.4 yrs (2023) | $27,847 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.69 (2025) | 37/100 (2024) | — | 3.7 t (2024) | 89.7 % (2024) | | [Ukraine](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ukraine) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.779 (2023) | 73.4 yrs (2023) | $16,155 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.39 (2025) | 35/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2020) | 3.8 t (2024) | 82.5 % (2024) | | [Uganda](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/uganda) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.582 (2023) | 68.3 yrs (2023) | $2,980 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.25 (2025) | 26/100 (2024) | 59.8 % (2019) | 0.1 t (2024) | 8.9 % (2024) | | [Algeria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/algeria) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.763 (2023) | 76.3 yrs (2023) | $15,883 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.27 (2025) | 34/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2011) | 4.2 t (2024) | 77.4 % (2024) | | [Sudan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sudan) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.511 (2023) | 66.3 yrs (2023) | $1,873 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.13 (2025) | 15/100 (2024) | 10.1 % (2014) | 0.4 t (2024) | 18.6 % (2017) | | [Iraq](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/iraq) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.695 (2023) | 72.3 yrs (2023) | $12,192 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.37 (2025) | 26/100 (2024) | 0.5 % (2023) | 5.1 t (2024) | 81.5 % (2024) | | [Afghanistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/afghanistan) | South Asia | 0.496 (2023) | 66.0 yrs (2023) | $1,964 (2024) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.07 (2025) | 17/100 (2024) | — | 0.3 t (2024) | 16.1 % (2024) | | [Poland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/poland) | Western & Central Europe | 0.906 (2023) | 78.6 yrs (2023) | $46,925 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.77 (2025) | 53/100 (2024) | 0.2 % (2023) | 7.1 t (2024) | 88.6 % (2024) | | [Canada](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/canada) | North America | 0.939 (2023) | 82.6 yrs (2023) | $57,990 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.84 (2025) | 75/100 (2024) | 0.3 % (2022) | 13.4 t (2024) | 94.4 % (2024) | | [Morocco](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/morocco) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.710 (2023) | 75.3 yrs (2023) | $9,495 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.26 (2025) | 37/100 (2024) | 3.7 % (2013) | 1.8 t (2024) | 91.2 % (2024) | | [Saudi Arabia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/saudi-arabia) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.900 (2023) | 78.7 yrs (2023) | $63,051 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.02 (2025) | 59/100 (2024) | — | 20.4 t (2024) | 100.0 % (2024) | | [Uzbekistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/uzbekistan) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.740 (2023) | 72.4 yrs (2023) | $11,623 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.22 (2025) | 32/100 (2024) | 2.3 % (2025) | 3.8 t (2024) | 89.5 % (2024) | | [Peru](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/peru) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.794 (2023) | 77.7 yrs (2023) | $16,079 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.67 (2025) | 31/100 (2024) | 5.1 % (2024) | 2.1 t (2024) | 82.0 % (2024) | | [Malaysia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/malaysia) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.819 (2023) | 76.7 yrs (2023) | $35,461 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.50 (2025) | 50/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2021) | 8.2 t (2024) | 98.0 % (2024) | | [Angola](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/angola) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.616 (2023) | 64.6 yrs (2023) | $8,760 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.34 (2025) | 32/100 (2024) | 39.3 % (2018) | 0.6 t (2024) | 40.7 % (2024) | | [Ghana](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ghana) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.628 (2023) | 65.5 yrs (2023) | $7,358 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.71 (2025) | 42/100 (2024) | 39.0 % (2016) | 0.6 t (2024) | 72.2 % (2024) | | [Mozambique](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mozambique) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.493 (2023) | 63.6 yrs (2023) | $1,451 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.28 (2025) | 25/100 (2024) | 81.4 % (2022) | 0.2 t (2024) | 20.5 % (2024) | | [Yemen](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/yemen) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.470 (2023) | 69.3 yrs (2023) | — | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.13 (2025) | 13/100 (2024) | 33.3 % (2014) | 0.2 t (2024) | 17.5 % (2019) | | [Nepal](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/nepal) | South Asia | 0.622 (2023) | 70.4 yrs (2023) | $5,277 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.66 (2025) | 34/100 (2024) | 2.4 % (2022) | 0.6 t (2024) | 46.3 % (2024) | | [Venezuela](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/venezuela) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.709 (2023) | 72.5 yrs (2023) | — | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.18 (2025) | 10/100 (2024) | 9.7 % (2006) | 4.1 t (2024) | 76.7 % (2024) | | [Madagascar](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/madagascar) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.487 (2023) | 63.6 yrs (2023) | $1,668 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.36 (2025) | 26/100 (2024) | 69.2 % (2021) | 0.1 t (2024) | 18.7 % (2024) | | [Cameroon](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cameroon) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.588 (2023) | 63.7 yrs (2023) | $4,946 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.26 (2025) | 26/100 (2024) | 26.7 % (2021) | 0.3 t (2024) | 46.3 % (2024) | | [Côte d'Ivoire](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cote-d-ivoire) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.582 (2023) | 61.9 yrs (2023) | $7,015 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.39 (2025) | 45/100 (2024) | 20.8 % (2021) | 0.5 t (2024) | 41.4 % (2024) | | [North Korea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/north-korea) | East Asia | — | 73.6 yrs (2023) | — | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.08 (2025) | 15/100 (2024) | — | 2.4 t (2024) | 0.0 % (2004) | | [Australia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/australia) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.958 (2023) | 83.9 yrs (2023) | $60,194 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.84 (2025) | 77/100 (2024) | 0.9 % (2020) | 14.5 t (2024) | 96.1 % (2024) | | [Taiwan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/taiwan) | East Asia | — | 80.6 yrs (2023) | — | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.80 (2025) | 67/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2021) | 11.3 t (2024) | — | | [Niger](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/niger) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.419 (2023) | 61.2 yrs (2023) | $1,861 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.23 (2025) | 34/100 (2024) | 60.5 % (2021) | 0.1 t (2024) | 15.6 % (2024) | | [Sri Lanka](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sri-lanka) | South Asia | 0.776 (2023) | 77.5 yrs (2023) | $14,583 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.78 (2025) | 32/100 (2024) | 2.7 % (2019) | 0.9 t (2024) | 54.6 % (2024) | | [Burkina Faso](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/burkina-faso) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.459 (2023) | 61.1 yrs (2023) | $2,625 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.13 (2025) | 41/100 (2024) | 42.1 % (2021) | 0.3 t (2024) | 28.3 % (2024) | | [Mali](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mali) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.419 (2023) | 60.4 yrs (2023) | $2,993 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.16 (2025) | 27/100 (2024) | 36.1 % (2021) | 0.3 t (2024) | 36.8 % (2024) | | [Romania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/romania) | Western & Central Europe | 0.845 (2023) | 75.9 yrs (2023) | $40,846 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.61 (2025) | 46/100 (2024) | 0.7 % (2023) | 3.6 t (2024) | 91.3 % (2024) | | [Chile](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/chile) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.878 (2023) | 81.2 yrs (2023) | $30,863 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.84 (2025) | 63/100 (2024) | 0.4 % (2024) | 4.0 t (2024) | 95.6 % (2024) | | [Malawi](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/malawi) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.517 (2023) | 67.4 yrs (2023) | $1,623 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.56 (2025) | 34/100 (2024) | 75.4 % (2019) | 0.1 t (2024) | 19.0 % (2024) | | [Kazakhstan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kazakhstan) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.837 (2023) | 74.4 yrs (2023) | $37,851 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.26 (2025) | 40/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2021) | 13.9 t (2024) | 93.4 % (2024) | | [Zambia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/zambia) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.595 (2023) | 66.3 yrs (2023) | $3,742 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.50 (2025) | 39/100 (2024) | 71.7 % (2022) | 0.6 t (2024) | 17.1 % (2024) | | [Ecuador](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ecuador) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.777 (2023) | 77.4 yrs (2023) | $14,319 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.61 (2025) | 32/100 (2024) | 3.4 % (2025) | 2.5 t (2024) | 77.2 % (2024) | | [Netherlands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/netherlands) | Western & Central Europe | 0.955 (2023) | 82.2 yrs (2023) | $71,378 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.83 (2025) | 78/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2021) | 6.3 t (2024) | 97.0 % (2024) | | [Syria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/syria) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.564 (2023) | 72.1 yrs (2023) | $4,579 (2022) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.13 (2025) | 12/100 (2024) | 18.0 % (2022) | 1.3 t (2024) | 33.8 % (2018) | | [Guatemala](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guatemala) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.662 (2023) | 72.6 yrs (2023) | $12,987 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.64 (2025) | 25/100 (2024) | 9.7 % (2023) | 1.1 t (2024) | 60.2 % (2024) | | [Cambodia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cambodia) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.606 (2023) | 70.7 yrs (2023) | $7,300 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.18 (2025) | 21/100 (2024) | — | 1.2 t (2024) | 68.5 % (2024) | | [Senegal](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/senegal) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.530 (2023) | 68.7 yrs (2023) | $4,669 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.63 (2025) | 45/100 (2024) | 17.9 % (2021) | 0.8 t (2024) | 60.1 % (2024) | | [Chad](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/chad) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.416 (2023) | 55.1 yrs (2023) | $2,481 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.24 (2025) | 21/100 (2024) | 39.5 % (2022) | 0.1 t (2024) | 12.6 % (2024) | | [Somalia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/somalia) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.404 (2023) | 58.8 yrs (2023) | $1,404 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.17 (2025) | 9/100 (2024) | — | 0.1 t (2024) | 27.9 % (2024) | | [Zimbabwe](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/zimbabwe) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.598 (2023) | 62.8 yrs (2023) | $5,529 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.27 (2025) | 21/100 (2024) | 49.2 % (2019) | 0.8 t (2024) | 41.6 % (2024) | | [Guinea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guinea) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.500 (2023) | 60.7 yrs (2023) | $4,217 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.19 (2025) | 28/100 (2024) | 11.7 % (2018) | 0.3 t (2024) | 33.3 % (2024) | | [Rwanda](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/rwanda) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.578 (2023) | 67.8 yrs (2023) | $3,559 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.19 (2025) | 57/100 (2024) | 38.6 % (2023) | 0.1 t (2024) | 31.7 % (2024) | | [Benin](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/benin) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.515 (2023) | 60.8 yrs (2023) | $4,116 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.49 (2025) | 45/100 (2024) | 27.2 % (2021) | 0.4 t (2024) | 34.0 % (2024) | | [Tunisia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tunisia) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.746 (2023) | 76.5 yrs (2023) | $13,018 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.40 (2025) | 39/100 (2024) | 0.7 % (2021) | 2.7 t (2024) | 76.5 % (2024) | | [Burundi](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/burundi) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.439 (2023) | 63.7 yrs (2023) | $1,067 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.19 (2025) | 17/100 (2024) | 74.2 % (2020) | 0.1 t (2024) | 8.6 % (2024) | | [Bolivia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bolivia) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.733 (2023) | 68.6 yrs (2023) | $11,001 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.61 (2025) | 28/100 (2024) | 2.1 % (2024) | 2.3 t (2024) | 79.7 % (2024) | | [Belgium](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/belgium) | Western & Central Europe | 0.951 (2023) | 82.1 yrs (2023) | $63,488 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.89 (2025) | 69/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2023) | 7.3 t (2024) | 95.8 % (2024) | | [Cuba](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cuba) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.762 (2023) | 78.1 yrs (2023) | — | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.18 (2025) | 41/100 (2024) | — | 2.2 t (2024) | 70.5 % (2024) | | [Haiti](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/haiti) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.554 (2023) | 64.9 yrs (2023) | $2,678 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.24 (2025) | 16/100 (2024) | 65.1 % (2012) | 0.3 t (2024) | 47.9 % (2024) | | [South Sudan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/s-sudan) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.388 (2023) | 57.6 yrs (2023) | — | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.13 (2025) | 8/100 (2024) | 76.5 % (2016) | 0.1 t (2024) | 6.7 % (2019) | | [Dominican Republic](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/dominican-rep) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.776 (2023) | 73.7 yrs (2023) | $24,543 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.74 (2025) | 36/100 (2024) | 0.8 % (2024) | 2.9 t (2024) | 91.0 % (2024) | | [Greece](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/greece) | Western & Central Europe | 0.908 (2023) | 81.9 yrs (2023) | $38,219 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.74 (2025) | 49/100 (2024) | 0.6 % (2023) | 5.3 t (2024) | 86.3 % (2024) | | [Czechia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/czechia) | Western & Central Europe | 0.915 (2023) | 79.8 yrs (2023) | $49,292 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.85 (2025) | 56/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2023) | 7.0 t (2024) | 87.7 % (2024) | | [Sweden](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sweden) | Western & Central Europe | 0.959 (2023) | 83.3 yrs (2023) | $63,362 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.89 (2025) | 80/100 (2024) | 0.8 % (2023) | 3.6 t (2024) | 95.8 % (2025) | | [Portugal](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/portugal) | Western & Central Europe | 0.890 (2023) | 82.4 yrs (2023) | $42,577 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.82 (2025) | 57/100 (2024) | 0.4 % (2023) | 3.4 t (2024) | 88.5 % (2024) | | [Jordan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/jordan) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.754 (2023) | 77.8 yrs (2023) | $10,794 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.28 (2025) | 49/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2010) | 2.0 t (2024) | 95.6 % (2024) | | [Azerbaijan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/azerbaijan) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.789 (2023) | 74.4 yrs (2023) | $22,314 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.17 (2025) | 22/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2005) | 3.9 t (2024) | 90.8 % (2025) | | [United Arab Emirates](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/united-arab-emirates) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.940 (2023) | 82.9 yrs (2023) | $69,702 (2024) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.10 (2025) | 68/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2018) | 20.1 t (2024) | 100.0 % (2024) | | [Hungary](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/hungary) | Western & Central Europe | 0.870 (2023) | 77.0 yrs (2023) | $41,161 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.42 (2025) | 41/100 (2024) | 0.9 % (2017) | 4.1 t (2024) | 93.8 % (2024) | | [Honduras](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/honduras) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.645 (2023) | 72.9 yrs (2023) | $6,726 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.51 (2025) | 22/100 (2024) | 15.7 % (2024) | 1.2 t (2024) | 58.6 % (2024) | | [Belarus](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/belarus) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.824 (2023) | 74.4 yrs (2023) | $29,666 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.16 (2025) | 33/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2020) | 6.2 t (2024) | 94.3 % (2024) | | [Tajikistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tajikistan) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.691 (2023) | 71.8 yrs (2023) | $5,062 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.16 (2025) | 19/100 (2024) | 6.1 % (2024) | 1.0 t (2024) | 55.8 % (2024) | | [Israel](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/israel) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.919 (2023) | 82.4 yrs (2023) | $48,197 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.69 (2025) | 64/100 (2024) | 0.4 % (2022) | 5.6 t (2024) | 88.2 % (2024) | | [Austria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/austria) | Western & Central Europe | 0.930 (2023) | 82.0 yrs (2023) | $63,970 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.84 (2025) | 67/100 (2024) | 0.5 % (2023) | 6.2 t (2024) | 91.9 % (2025) | | [Papua New Guinea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/papua-new-guinea) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.576 (2023) | 66.1 yrs (2023) | $4,456 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.47 (2025) | 31/100 (2024) | 52.2 % (2009) | 0.8 t (2024) | 18.8 % (2024) | | [Switzerland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/switzerland) | Western & Central Europe | 0.970 (2023) | 84.0 yrs (2023) | $85,732 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.88 (2025) | 81/100 (2024) | 0.2 % (2022) | 3.6 t (2024) | 97.3 % (2025) | | [Togo](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/togo) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.571 (2023) | 62.7 yrs (2023) | $3,486 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.35 (2025) | 32/100 (2024) | 34.7 % (2021) | 0.3 t (2024) | 39.5 % (2024) | | [Sierra Leone](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sierra-leone) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.467 (2023) | 61.8 yrs (2023) | $3,176 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.47 (2025) | 33/100 (2024) | 41.5 % (2018) | 0.2 t (2024) | 25.1 % (2024) | | [Hong Kong](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/hong-kong) | East Asia | 0.955 (2023) | 85.5 yrs (2023) | $68,725 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.15 (2025) | 74/100 (2024) | — | 4.5 t (2024) | 95.8 % (2024) | | [Laos](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/laos) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.617 (2023) | 69.0 yrs (2023) | $8,873 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.14 (2025) | 33/100 (2024) | 7.1 % (2024) | 3.1 t (2024) | 65.6 % (2024) | | [Paraguay](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/paraguay) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.756 (2023) | 73.8 yrs (2023) | $17,246 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.58 (2025) | 24/100 (2024) | 2.1 % (2024) | 1.1 t (2024) | 81.6 % (2024) | | [Bulgaria](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bulgaria) | Western & Central Europe | 0.845 (2023) | 75.6 yrs (2023) | $35,326 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.60 (2025) | 43/100 (2024) | 1.0 % (2023) | 4.7 t (2024) | 82.4 % (2024) | | [Serbia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/serbia) | Western & Central Europe | 0.833 (2023) | 76.8 yrs (2023) | $27,603 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.30 (2025) | 35/100 (2024) | 1.1 % (2023) | 6.2 t (2024) | 87.7 % (2024) | | [Lebanon](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/lebanon) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.752 (2023) | 77.8 yrs (2023) | $10,469 (2024) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.42 (2025) | 22/100 (2024) | 5.8 % (2022) | 2.7 t (2024) | 80.6 % (2024) | | [Libya](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/libya) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.721 (2023) | 69.3 yrs (2023) | $14,118 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.19 (2025) | 13/100 (2024) | — | 8.8 t (2024) | 82.0 % (2024) | | [Nicaragua](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/nicaragua) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.706 (2023) | 74.9 yrs (2023) | $7,933 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.15 (2025) | 14/100 (2024) | 6.6 % (2014) | 0.8 t (2024) | 61.4 % (2024) | | [Kyrgyzstan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kyrgyzstan) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.720 (2023) | 71.7 yrs (2023) | $7,878 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.31 (2025) | 25/100 (2024) | 2.2 % (2024) | 1.6 t (2024) | 92.0 % (2024) | | [El Salvador](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/el-salvador) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.678 (2023) | 72.1 yrs (2023) | $12,050 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.32 (2025) | 30/100 (2024) | 4.6 % (2023) | 1.4 t (2024) | 66.5 % (2024) | | [Eritrea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/eritrea) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.503 (2023) | 68.6 yrs (2023) | — | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.07 (2025) | 13/100 (2024) | — | 0.2 t (2024) | 14.3 % (2020) | | [Turkmenistan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/turkmenistan) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.764 (2023) | 70.1 yrs (2023) | $19,314 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.15 (2025) | 17/100 (2024) | 35.1 % (1998) | 10.8 t (2024) | 18.0 % (2016) | | [Denmark](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/denmark) | Western & Central Europe | 0.962 (2023) | 81.9 yrs (2023) | $72,723 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.91 (2025) | 90/100 (2024) | 0.4 % (2023) | 4.7 t (2024) | 99.8 % (2024) | | [Singapore](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/singapore) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.946 (2023) | 83.7 yrs (2023) | $139,593 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.43 (2025) | 84/100 (2024) | — | 9.2 t (2024) | 94.4 % (2024) | | [Finland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/finland) | Western & Central Europe | 0.948 (2023) | 81.9 yrs (2023) | $55,735 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.85 (2025) | 88/100 (2024) | 0.2 % (2023) | 5.3 t (2024) | 93.7 % (2024) | | [Slovakia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/slovakia) | Western & Central Europe | 0.880 (2023) | 78.3 yrs (2023) | $40,690 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.73 (2025) | 49/100 (2024) | 0.5 % (2023) | 5.3 t (2024) | 89.8 % (2024) | | [Congo](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/congo) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.649 (2023) | 65.8 yrs (2023) | $6,194 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.24 (2025) | 23/100 (2024) | 39.2 % (2011) | 1.4 t (2024) | 47.3 % (2024) | | [Norway](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/norway) | Western & Central Europe | 0.970 (2023) | 83.3 yrs (2023) | $95,173 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.89 (2025) | 81/100 (2024) | 0.2 % (2023) | 6.7 t (2024) | 99.0 % (2024) | | [Costa Rica](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/costa-rica) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.833 (2023) | 80.8 yrs (2023) | $28,443 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.86 (2025) | 58/100 (2024) | 0.8 % (2025) | 1.7 t (2024) | 87.2 % (2024) | | [Oman](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/oman) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.858 (2023) | 80.0 yrs (2023) | $36,143 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.18 (2025) | 55/100 (2024) | — | 15.7 t (2024) | 95.3 % (2024) | | [Ireland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/ireland) | Western & Central Europe | 0.949 (2023) | 82.4 yrs (2023) | $131,338 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.89 (2025) | 77/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2023) | 6.3 t (2024) | 97.2 % (2024) | | [Liberia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/liberia) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.510 (2023) | 62.2 yrs (2023) | $1,693 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.60 (2025) | 27/100 (2024) | 33.6 % (2016) | 0.2 t (2024) | 32.2 % (2024) | | [New Zealand](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/new-zealand) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.938 (2023) | 82.1 yrs (2023) | $48,233 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.85 (2025) | 83/100 (2024) | — | 6.2 t (2024) | 93.5 % (2024) | | [Central African Republic](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/central-african-rep) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.414 (2023) | 57.4 yrs (2023) | $1,123 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.29 (2025) | 24/100 (2024) | 71.6 % (2021) | 0.1 t (2024) | 13.8 % (2024) | | [Palestine](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/palestine) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.674 (2023) | 65.2 yrs (2023) | $4,272 (2025) | Closed autocracy (1948) | 0.08 (1948) | — | 2.1 % (2023) | 0.9 t (2024) | 86.6 % (2023) | | [Mauritania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mauritania) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.563 (2023) | 68.5 yrs (2023) | $6,559 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.33 (2025) | 30/100 (2024) | 10.2 % (2019) | 1.0 t (2024) | 45.8 % (2024) | | [Panama](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/panama) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.839 (2023) | 79.6 yrs (2023) | $37,516 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.73 (2025) | 33/100 (2024) | 3.1 % (2024) | 2.8 t (2024) | 72.8 % (2024) | | [Kuwait](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kuwait) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.852 (2023) | 80.4 yrs (2023) | $48,254 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.14 (2025) | 46/100 (2024) | — | 26.2 t (2024) | 100.0 % (2025) | | [Croatia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/croatia) | Western & Central Europe | 0.889 (2023) | 78.6 yrs (2023) | $44,172 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.69 (2025) | 47/100 (2024) | 0.3 % (2023) | 4.8 t (2024) | 83.6 % (2024) | | [Georgia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/georgia) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.844 (2023) | 74.5 yrs (2023) | $25,136 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.40 (2025) | 53/100 (2024) | 4.2 % (2024) | 3.1 t (2024) | 83.8 % (2024) | | [Uruguay](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/uruguay) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.862 (2023) | 78.1 yrs (2023) | $32,742 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.86 (2025) | 76/100 (2024) | 0.2 % (2024) | 2.4 t (2024) | 92.0 % (2024) | | [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bosnia-and-herz) | Western & Central Europe | 0.804 (2023) | 77.9 yrs (2023) | $21,178 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.50 (2025) | 33/100 (2024) | 0.3 % (2021) | 6.1 t (2024) | 86.1 % (2024) | | [Mongolia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mongolia) | East Asia | 0.747 (2023) | 71.7 yrs (2023) | $17,773 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.54 (2025) | 33/100 (2024) | 0.4 % (2022) | 12.9 t (2024) | 85.1 % (2024) | | [Puerto Rico](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/puerto-rico) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 81.7 yrs (2023) | $44,603 (2025) | — | — | 63/100 (2014) | — | — | 87.3 % (2022) | | [Armenia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/armenia) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.811 (2023) | 75.7 yrs (2023) | $21,153 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.61 (2025) | 47/100 (2024) | 0.8 % (2024) | 2.5 t (2024) | 81.3 % (2024) | | [Jamaica](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/jamaica) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.720 (2023) | 71.5 yrs (2023) | $11,358 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.81 (2025) | 44/100 (2024) | 1.4 % (2021) | 3.0 t (2024) | 90.1 % (2024) | | [Albania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/albania) | Western & Central Europe | 0.810 (2023) | 79.6 yrs (2023) | $22,724 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.48 (2025) | 42/100 (2024) | 0.3 % (2020) | 1.6 t (2024) | 85.9 % (2024) | | [Qatar](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/qatar) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.886 (2023) | 82.4 yrs (2023) | $110,136 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.03 (2025) | 59/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2017) | 41.3 t (2024) | 98.1 % (2024) | | [Lithuania](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/lithuania) | Western & Central Europe | 0.895 (2023) | 76.0 yrs (2023) | $48,840 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.79 (2025) | 63/100 (2024) | 1.1 % (2023) | 4.4 t (2024) | 89.2 % (2024) | | [Moldova](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/moldova) | Eastern Europe & Central Asia | 0.785 (2023) | 71.2 yrs (2023) | $17,087 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.55 (2025) | 43/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2023) | 1.8 t (2024) | 77.4 % (2024) | | [Namibia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/namibia) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.665 (2023) | 67.4 yrs (2023) | $10,242 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.63 (2025) | 49/100 (2024) | 22.9 % (2015) | 1.1 t (2024) | 64.9 % (2024) | | [Gambia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/gambia) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.524 (2023) | 65.9 yrs (2023) | $3,167 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.64 (2025) | 38/100 (2024) | 22.0 % (2020) | 0.3 t (2024) | 49.5 % (2024) | | [Botswana](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/botswana) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.731 (2023) | 69.2 yrs (2023) | $17,687 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.67 (2025) | 57/100 (2024) | 21.4 % (2015) | 3.0 t (2024) | 57.5 % (2024) | | [Gabon](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/gabon) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.733 (2023) | 68.3 yrs (2023) | $18,986 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.30 (2025) | 27/100 (2024) | 3.8 % (2017) | 2.1 t (2024) | 68.7 % (2024) | | [Lesotho](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/lesotho) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.550 (2023) | 57.4 yrs (2023) | $2,721 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.66 (2025) | 37/100 (2024) | 41.9 % (2017) | 1.1 t (2024) | 51.8 % (2024) | | [Slovenia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/slovenia) | Western & Central Europe | 0.931 (2023) | 81.6 yrs (2023) | $49,091 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.69 (2025) | 60/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2023) | 6.0 t (2024) | 90.8 % (2024) | | [North Macedonia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/north-macedonia) | Western & Central Europe | 0.815 (2023) | 77.4 yrs (2023) | $25,095 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.56 (2025) | 40/100 (2024) | 3.9 % (2019) | 3.6 t (2024) | 93.1 % (2025) | | [Guinea-Bissau](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guinea-bissau) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.514 (2023) | 64.1 yrs (2023) | $2,814 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.25 (2025) | 21/100 (2024) | 39.9 % (2021) | 0.2 t (2024) | 29.8 % (2024) | | [Latvia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/latvia) | Western & Central Europe | 0.889 (2023) | 76.2 yrs (2023) | $38,801 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.83 (2025) | 59/100 (2024) | 0.4 % (2023) | 3.5 t (2024) | 92.7 % (2024) | | [Kosovo](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kosovo) | Western & Central Europe | — | 78.0 yrs (2023) | $16,461 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.63 (2025) | 44/100 (2024) | 10.0 % (2022) | 4.8 t (2024) | 89.4 % (2018) | | [Bahrain](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bahrain) | Middle East & North Africa | 0.899 (2023) | 81.3 yrs (2023) | $60,670 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.14 (2025) | 53/100 (2024) | — | 24.3 t (2024) | 100.0 % (2024) | | [Cyprus](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cyprus) | Western & Central Europe | 0.913 (2023) | 81.6 yrs (2023) | $54,103 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.77 (2025) | 56/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2023) | 5.4 t (2024) | 89.6 % (2024) | | [Trinidad and Tobago](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/trinidad-and-tobago) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.807 (2023) | 73.5 yrs (2023) | $31,722 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.79 (2025) | 41/100 (2024) | 3.2 % (1992) | 22.9 t (2024) | 82.2 % (2024) | | [Equatorial Guinea](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/eq-guinea) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.674 (2023) | 63.7 yrs (2023) | $13,786 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.17 (2025) | 13/100 (2024) | 8.8 % (2022) | 3.7 t (2024) | 63.3 % (2024) | | [Estonia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/estonia) | Western & Central Europe | 0.905 (2023) | 79.2 yrs (2023) | $41,604 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.89 (2025) | 76/100 (2024) | 0.3 % (2023) | 6.1 t (2024) | 92.2 % (2024) | | [Timor-Leste](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/timor-leste) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.634 (2023) | 67.7 yrs (2023) | $4,110 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.74 (2025) | 44/100 (2024) | 44.0 % (2014) | 0.5 t (2024) | 35.0 % (2021) | | [Mauritius](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/mauritius) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.806 (2023) | 74.9 yrs (2023) | $28,770 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.74 (2025) | 51/100 (2024) | 0.5 % (2017) | 3.7 t (2024) | 73.3 % (2024) | | [eSwatini](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/eswatini) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.695 (2023) | 64.1 yrs (2023) | $10,707 (2025) | Closed autocracy (2025) | 0.13 (2025) | 27/100 (2024) | 44.5 % (2016) | 0.8 t (2024) | 63.4 % (2024) | | [Djibouti](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/djibouti) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.513 (2023) | 66.0 yrs (2023) | $7,223 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.25 (2025) | 31/100 (2024) | 25.4 % (2017) | 0.5 t (2024) | 65.3 % (2024) | | [Fiji](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/fiji) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.731 (2023) | 67.3 yrs (2023) | $13,961 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.51 (2025) | 55/100 (2024) | 4.7 % (2019) | 1.6 t (2024) | 74.7 % (2024) | | [Comoros](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/comoros) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.603 (2023) | 66.8 yrs (2023) | $3,622 (2025) | Electoral autocracy (2025) | 0.29 (2025) | 21/100 (2024) | 5.1 % (2024) | 0.6 t (2024) | 32.5 % (2024) | | [Guyana](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guyana) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.776 (2023) | 70.2 yrs (2023) | $83,659 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.52 (2025) | 39/100 (2024) | 13.0 % (1998) | 5.4 t (2024) | 83.0 % (2024) | | [Bhutan](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bhutan) | South Asia | 0.698 (2023) | 73.0 yrs (2023) | $16,744 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.57 (2025) | 72/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2022) | 2.1 t (2024) | 91.3 % (2024) | | [Solomon Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/solomon-is) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.584 (2023) | 70.5 yrs (2023) | $2,382 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.70 (2025) | 43/100 (2024) | 40.3 % (2012) | 0.4 t (2024) | 29.0 % (2024) | | [Macao](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/macao) | East Asia | — | 83.1 yrs (2023) | $117,098 (2025) | — | — | — | — | 1.5 t (2024) | 89.8 % (2024) | | [Montenegro](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/montenegro) | Western & Central Europe | 0.862 (2023) | 77.1 yrs (2023) | $28,895 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.64 (2025) | 46/100 (2024) | 2.5 % (2021) | 3.7 t (2024) | 88.9 % (2024) | | [Luxembourg](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/luxembourg) | Western & Central Europe | 0.922 (2023) | 82.2 yrs (2023) | $127,421 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.87 (2025) | 81/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2023) | 10.5 t (2024) | 99.1 % (2025) | | [Western Sahara](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/western-sahara) | Middle East & North Africa | — | 71.4 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | [Suriname](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/suriname) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.722 (2023) | 73.6 yrs (2023) | $19,357 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.78 (2025) | 40/100 (2024) | 2.2 % (2022) | 4.7 t (2024) | 87.4 % (2023) | | [Cabo Verde](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cabo-verde) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.668 (2023) | 76.1 yrs (2023) | $10,396 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.75 (2025) | 62/100 (2024) | 14.6 % (2015) | 1.1 t (2024) | 74.7 % (2024) | | [Maldives](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/maldives) | South Asia | 0.766 (2023) | 81.0 yrs (2023) | $24,401 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.56 (2025) | 38/100 (2024) | 0.0 % (2019) | 4.4 t (2024) | 85.2 % (2024) | | [Malta](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/malta) | Western & Central Europe | 0.924 (2023) | 83.3 yrs (2023) | $63,656 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.78 (2025) | 46/100 (2024) | 0.4 % (2023) | 3.2 t (2024) | 93.9 % (2024) | | [Brunei](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/brunei) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.837 (2023) | 75.3 yrs (2023) | $78,985 (2025) | — | — | 60/100 (2020) | — | 26.0 t (2024) | 96.3 % (2024) | | [Belize](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/belize) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.721 (2023) | 73.6 yrs (2023) | $12,789 (2025) | — | — | — | 1.0 % (2018) | 1.9 t (2024) | 80.0 % (2024) | | [Bahamas](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bahamas) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.820 (2023) | 74.6 yrs (2023) | $36,244 (2024) | — | — | 65/100 (2024) | — | 7.6 t (2024) | 92.5 % (2024) | | [Iceland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/iceland) | Western & Central Europe | 0.972 (2023) | 82.7 yrs (2023) | $68,065 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.81 (2025) | 77/100 (2024) | 0.1 % (2019) | 9.7 t (2024) | 98.2 % (2024) | | [Vanuatu](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/vanuatu) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.621 (2023) | 71.5 yrs (2023) | $3,867 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.73 (2025) | 50/100 (2024) | 19.5 % (2019) | 0.6 t (2024) | 22.4 % (2015) | | [New Caledonia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/new-caledonia) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | — | 78.8 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 18.1 t (2024) | 82.0 % (2017) | | [Barbados](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/barbados) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.811 (2023) | 76.2 yrs (2023) | $22,127 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.80 (2025) | 68/100 (2024) | 1.7 % (2016) | 4.8 t (2024) | 70.4 % (2024) | | [French Polynesia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/fr-polynesia) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | — | 84.1 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 3.3 t (2024) | 72.7 % (2017) | | [São Tomé and Principe](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sao-tome-and-principe) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.637 (2023) | 69.7 yrs (2023) | $5,459 (2025) | Electoral democracy (2025) | 0.63 (2025) | 45/100 (2024) | 13.0 % (2017) | 0.6 t (2024) | 59.1 % (2024) | | [Samoa](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/samoa) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.708 (2023) | 71.7 yrs (2023) | $7,963 (2025) | — | — | — | 4.5 % (2013) | 1.1 t (2024) | 21.2 % (2014) | | [Saint Lucia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/saint-lucia) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.748 (2023) | 72.7 yrs (2023) | $24,503 (2025) | — | — | 59/100 (2024) | 6.4 % (2015) | 3.0 t (2024) | 68.2 % (2024) | | [Guam](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guam) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | — | 77.2 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | 80.5 % (2017) | | [Curaçao](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/curacao) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 76.8 yrs (2023) | $28,762 (2024) | — | — | — | — | 12.3 t (2024) | 68.1 % (2017) | | [Kiribati](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/kiribati) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.644 (2023) | 66.5 yrs (2023) | $3,364 (2025) | — | — | — | 0.9 % (2023) | 0.5 t (2024) | 89.4 % (2024) | | [Micronesia](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/micronesia) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.615 (2023) | 67.2 yrs (2023) | $3,935 (2025) | — | — | — | 26.1 % (2013) | 1.3 t (2024) | 39.5 % (2024) | | [Grenada](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/grenada) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.791 (2023) | 75.2 yrs (2023) | $18,241 (2025) | — | — | 56/100 (2024) | 0.8 % (2018) | 3.2 t (2024) | 70.2 % (2024) | | [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-vin-and-gren) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.798 (2023) | 71.2 yrs (2023) | $19,483 (2025) | — | — | 63/100 (2024) | — | 2.5 t (2024) | 76.2 % (2024) | | [Jersey](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/jersey) | Western & Central Europe | — | 79.7 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | [Virgin Islands of the United States](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/u-s-virgin-is) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 75.5 yrs (2023) | $46,479 (2022) | — | — | — | — | — | 64.4 % (2017) | | [Aruba](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/aruba) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 76.4 yrs (2023) | $45,428 (2024) | — | — | — | — | 8.5 t (2024) | 97.2 % (2017) | | [Tonga](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tonga) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.769 (2023) | 72.9 yrs (2023) | $7,413 (2025) | — | — | — | 0.4 % (2021) | 1.5 t (2024) | 67.4 % (2024) | | [Seychelles](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/seychelles) | Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.848 (2023) | 72.9 yrs (2023) | $30,639 (2025) | Liberal democracy (2025) | 0.76 (2025) | 72/100 (2024) | 0.7 % (2018) | 5.0 t (2024) | 87.8 % (2024) | | [Antigua and Barbuda](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/antigua-and-barb) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.851 (2023) | 77.6 yrs (2023) | $30,620 (2025) | — | — | — | — | 7.1 t (2024) | 72.7 % (2024) | | [Isle of Man](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/isle-of-man) | Western & Central Europe | — | 81.0 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | [Andorra](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/andorra) | Western & Central Europe | 0.913 (2023) | 84.0 yrs (2023) | $67,993 (2025) | — | — | — | — | 5.2 t (2024) | 94.4 % (2024) | | [Dominica](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/dominica) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.761 (2023) | 71.1 yrs (2023) | $19,409 (2025) | — | — | 60/100 (2024) | — | 2.6 t (2024) | 82.0 % (2024) | | [Cayman Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cayman-is) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 80.4 yrs (2023) | $80,997 (2024) | — | — | — | — | — | 81.1 % (2017) | | [Bermuda](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/bermuda) | North America | — | 82.3 yrs (2023) | $104,300 (2024) | — | — | — | — | 8.5 t (2024) | 98.4 % (2017) | | [Guernsey](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/guernsey) | Western & Central Europe | — | 83.3 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | [Marshall Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/marshall-is) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.733 (2023) | 66.9 yrs (2023) | $7,660 (2025) | — | — | — | 2.1 % (2019) | 4.1 t (2024) | 65.9 % (2024) | | [Northern Mariana Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/n-mariana-is) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | — | 78.8 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.0 % (1990) | | [Greenland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/greenland) | North America | — | 70.1 yrs (2023) | $71,038 (2023) | — | — | — | — | 11.1 t (2024) | 69.5 % (2017) | | [American Samoa](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/american-samoa) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | — | 72.9 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.0 % (1990) | | [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-kitts-and-nevis) | Latin America & the Caribbean | 0.840 (2023) | 72.1 yrs (2023) | $31,428 (2025) | — | — | — | — | 5.5 t (2024) | 76.9 % (2024) | | [Faeroe Is.](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/faeroe-is) | Western & Central Europe | — | 80.2 yrs (2023) | $72,114 (2024) | — | — | — | — | 13.1 t (2024) | 97.6 % (2017) | | [Sint Maarten](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/sint-maarten) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 76.4 yrs (2023) | $48,273 (2025) | — | — | — | — | 16.5 t (2024) | — | | [Monaco](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/monaco) | Western & Central Europe | — | 86.4 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | 99.0 % (2024) | | [Turks and Caicos Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/turks-and-caicos-is) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 78.0 yrs (2023) | $33,391 (2024) | — | — | — | — | 8.1 t (2024) | 0.0 % (1990) | | [Liechtenstein](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/liechtenstein) | Western & Central Europe | 0.938 (2023) | 83.6 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 3.3 t (2024) | 98.3 % (2024) | | [St-Martin](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-martin) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 80.2 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | [San Marino](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/san-marino) | Western & Central Europe | 0.915 (2023) | 85.7 yrs (2023) | $70,952 (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 97.4 % (2024) | | [British Virgin Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/british-virgin-is) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 77.3 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 4.9 t (2024) | 77.7 % (2017) | | [Åland](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/aland) | Western & Central Europe | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | [Palau](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/palau) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.786 (2023) | 69.3 yrs (2023) | $19,699 (2025) | — | — | — | — | 12.8 t (2024) | 83.9 % (2024) | | [Cook Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/cook-is) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | — | 75.3 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 5.8 t (2024) | — | | [Anguilla](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/anguilla) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 79.3 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 10.1 t (2024) | — | | [Nauru](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/nauru) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.703 (2023) | 62.1 yrs (2023) | $12,135 (2025) | — | — | — | 9.7 % (2012) | 5.1 t (2024) | 83.0 % (2024) | | [Tuvalu](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/tuvalu) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | 0.689 (2023) | 67.1 yrs (2023) | $5,776 (2025) | — | — | — | 9.0 % (2010) | 1.2 t (2024) | 35.2 % (2017) | | [St-Barthélemy](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-barthelemy) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 84.3 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | [Saint Pierre and Miquelon](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/st-pierre-and-miquelon) | North America | — | 76.8 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 9.8 t (2024) | — | | [Montserrat](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/montserrat) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 76.2 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 6.0 t (2024) | — | | [Falkland Islands](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/falkland-is) | Latin America & the Caribbean | — | 79.2 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | [Niue](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/niue) | Southeast Asia & Oceania | — | 70.0 yrs (2023) | — | — | — | — | — | 4.1 t (2024) | — | | [Vatican](https://www.atlasoftodaysworld.org/country/vatican) | Western & Central Europe | — | 83.0 yrs (2023) | — | Closed autocracy (1861) | 0.03 (1870) | — | — | — | — |